FUNDAMENTAL OF DIE CASTING

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FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUID DYNAMIC

CONTENTS
Stagnation effects
Nozzle
Normal Shock
Isothermal Flow
Fanno Flow
Rayleigh Flow
Evacuation and filling semi rigid Chambers
Evacuating and filling chambers under external forces
Oblique Shock
Prandtl–Meyer
Transient problem
1 Introduction 1
1.1 What is Compressible Flow ?
1.2 Why Compressible Flow is Important?
1.3 Historical Background
1.3.1 Early Developments
1.3.2 The shock wave puzzle
1.3.3 Choking Flow
1.3.4 External flow
1.3.5 Filling and Evacuating Gaseous Chambers
1.3.6 Biographies of Major Figures

2 Fundamentals of Basic Fluid Mechanics
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Fluid Properties
2.3 Control Volume
2.4 Reynold’s Transport Theorem

3 Speed of Sound
3.1 Motivation
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Speed of sound in ideal and perfect gases
3.4 Speed of Sound in Real Gas
3.5 Speed of Sound in Almost Incompressible Liquid
3.6 Speed of Sound in Solids
3.7 Sound Speed in Two Phase Medium

4 Isentropic Flow
4.1 Stagnation State for Ideal Gas Model
4.1.1 General Relationship
4.1.2 Relationships for Small Mach Number
4.2 Isentropic Converging-Diverging Flow in Cross Section
4.2.1 The Properties in the Adiabatic Nozzle
4.2.2 Isentropic Flow Examples

CONTENTS v
4.2.3 Mass Flow Rate (Number)
4.3 Isentropic Tables
4.3.1 Isentropic Isothermal Flow Nozzle
4.3.2 General Relationship
4.4 The Impulse Function
4.4.1 Impulse in Isentropic Adiabatic Nozzle
4.4.2 The Impulse Function in Isothermal Nozzle
4.5 Isothermal Table
4.6 The effects of Real Gases

5 Normal Shock
5.1 Solution of the Governing Equations
5.1.1 Informal Model
5.1.2 Formal Model
5.1.3 Prandtl’s Condition
5.2 Operating Equations and Analysis
5.2.1 The Limitations of the Shock Wave
5.2.2 Small Perturbation Solution
5.2.3 Shock Thickness
5.2.4 Shock or Wave Drag
5.3 The Moving Shocks
5.3.1 Shock or Wave Drag Result from a Moving Shock
5.3.2 Shock Result from a Sudden and Complete Stop
5.3.3 Moving Shock into Stationary Medium (Suddenly Open Valve)
5.3.4 Partially Open Valve
5.3.5 Partially Closed Valve
5.3.6 Worked–out Examples for Shock Dynamics
5.4 Shock Tube
5.5 Shock with Real Gases
5.6 Shock in Wet Steam
5.7 Normal Shock in Ducts
5.8 More Examples for Moving Shocks
5.9 Tables of Normal Shocks, k = 1.4 Ideal Gas

6 Normal Shock in Variable Duct Areas
6.1 Nozzle efficiency
6.2 Diffuser Efficiency
7 Nozzle Flow With External Forces
7.1 Isentropic Nozzle (Q = 0)
7.2 Isothermal Nozzle (T = constant)

vi CONTENTS
8 Isothermal Flow 143
8.1 The Control Volume Analysis/Governing equations
8.2 Dimensionless Representation
8.3 The Entrance Limitation of Supersonic Branch
8.4 Comparison with Incompressible Flow
8.5 Supersonic Branch
8.6 Figures and Tables
8.7 Isothermal Flow Examples
8.8 Unchoked situations in Fanno Flow

9 Fanno Flow
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Model
9.3 Non–Dimensionalization of the Equations
9.4 The Mechanics and Why the Flow is Choked?
9.5 The working equations
9.6 Examples of Fanno Flow
9.7 Supersonic Branch
9.8 Maximum Length for the Supersonic Flow
9.9 Working Conditions
9.9.1 Variations of The Tube Length ( 4fLD ) Effects
9.9.2 The Pressure Ratio, P2,P1 , effects
9.9.3 Entrance Mach number, M1, effects
9.10 Practical Examples for Subsonic Flow
9.10.1 Subsonic Fanno Flow for Given 4fLD and Pressure Ratio
9.10.2 Subsonic Fanno Flow for a Given M1 and Pressure Ratio
9.11 The Approximation of the Fanno Flow by Isothermal Flow
9.12 More Examples of Fanno Flow
9.13 The Table for Fanno Flow

10 Rayleigh Flow
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Governing Equation
10.3 Rayleigh Flow Tables
10.4 Examples For Rayleigh Flow

11 Evacuating SemiRigid Chambers
11.1 Governing Equations and Assumptions
11.2 General Model and Non-dimensioned
11.2.1 Isentropic Process
11.2.2 Isothermal Process in The Chamber
11.2.3 A Note on the Entrance Mach number
11.3 Rigid Tank with Nozzle
11.3.1 Adiabatic Isentropic Nozzle Attached
11.3.2 Isothermal Nozzle Attached
CONTENTS vii
11.4 Rapid evacuating of a rigid tank
11.4.1 With Fanno Flow
11.4.2 Filling Process
11.4.3 The Isothermal Process
11.4.4 Simple Semi Rigid Chamber
11.4.5 The “Simple” General Case
11.5 Advance Topics

12 Evacuating under External Volume Control
12.1 General Model
12.1.1 Rapid Process
12.1.2 Examples
12.1.3 Direct Connection
12.2 Summary

13 Oblique Shock
13.1 Preface to Oblique Shock
13.2 Introduction
13.2.1 Introduction to Oblique Shock
13.2.2 Introduction to Prandtl–Meyer Function
13.2.3 Introduction to Zero Inclination
13.3 Oblique Shock
13.4 Solution of Mach Angle
13.4.1 Upstream Mach Number, M1, and Deflection Angle,
13.4.2 When No Oblique Shock Exist or When D > 0
13.4.3 Upstream Mach Number, M1, and Shock Angle, µ
13.4.4 Given Two Angles, ± and µ
13.4.5 Flow in a Semi–2D Shape
13.4.6 Small ± “Weak Oblique shock”
13.4.7 Close and Far Views of the Oblique Shock
13.4.8 Maximum Value of Oblique shock
13.5 Detached Shock
13.5.1 Issues Related to the Maximum Deflection Angle
13.5.2 Oblique Shock Examples .
13.5.3 Application of Oblique Shock
13.5.4 Optimization of Suction Section Design
13.5.5 Retouch of Shock or Wave Drag
13.6 Summary
13.7 Appendix: Oblique Shock Stability Analysis

14 Prandtl-Meyer Function
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Geometrical Explanation
14.2.1 Alternative Approach to Governing Equations
14.2.2 Comparison And Limitations between the Two Approaches
viii CONTENTS
14.3 The Maximum Turning Angle
14.4 The Working Equations for the Prandtl-Meyer Function
14.5 d’Alembert’s Paradox
14.6 Flat Body with an Angle of Attack
14.7 Examples For Prandtl–Meyer Function
14.8 Combination of the Oblique Shock and Isentropic Expansion

A Computer Program
A.1 About the Program
A.2 Usage
A.3 Program listings

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HVAC DUCT CONSTRUCTION STANDARDS

Total 287 pages 7 mb

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Design with structural Steel A guide for architects

Content

SYSTEMS
PART I
Basic Structural Engineering
Understanding Load Flow
Types of Basic Lateral Systems
Beam Web Penetrations
Thermal Movement of Structural Steel
Floor Vibration

PART II
Protecting Structural Steel
Guide to Coatings Technology
Basics of Protective Coatings
Composition of Coatings
Types of Coatings
Painting Guides
Special Purpose Coating Systems
Paint Systems
Surface Preparation
Other Substrates
Use of Protective Coatings
Evaluation of Existing Coating for Overcoating
Coating Test Methods and Procedures
Surface Preparation for Overcoating Systems
Quality Assurance
Evaluation of Performance Requirements for Coating Systems
Protecting Substrates from Corrosion
Economics
Inspection
Coating References
Sample Painting Guide Specifications
Fire Protection
General Factors
Fire Protection Materials
Underwriters Laboratories (UL) Assemblies
Restrained and Unrestrained Construction
Architecturally Exposed Steel
Rational Fire Design Based on Fire Engineering

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Hydraulics of pipeline systems

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. Review of Fundamentals
2.1 The fundamental principles
2.1.1. The basic equations
2.1.2. Energy and Hydraulic Grade Lines
2.2 Head loss formulas
2.2.1. Pipe friction
2.2.2. Darcy-Weisbach equation
2.2.3. Empirical equations
2.2.4. Exponential formula
2.2.5. Local and minor losses
2.3 Pump theory and characteristics
2.4 Steady flow analyses
2.4.1. Series pipe flow
2.4.2. Series pipe flow with pump(s)
2.4.3. Parallel pipe flow, equivalent pipes
2.4.4. Three reservoir problem
2.5 Problems

3. Manifold Flow
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Analysis of manifold flow
3.2.1. No friction
3.2.2. Barrel friction only
3.2.3. Barrel friction with junction losses
3.3 A hydraulic design procedure
3.4 Problems

4. Pipe Network Analysis
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1. Defining an appropriate pipe system
4.1.2. Basic relations between network elements
4.2 Equation systems for steady flow in networks
4.2.1. System of Q-equations
4.2.2. System of H-equations
4.2.3. System of ?Q-equations
4.3 Pressure reduction and back pressure valves
4.3.1. Q-equations for networks with PRV's/BPV's
4.3.2. H-equations for networks with PRV's/BPV's
4.3.3. ?Q-equations for networks with PRV's/BPV's
4.4 Solving the network equations
4.4.1. Newton method for large systems of equations
4.4.2. Solving the three equation systems via Newton
4.4.3. Computer solutions to networks
4.4.4. Including pressure reducing valves
4.4.5. Systematic solution of the Q-equations
4.4.6. Systematic solution of the H-equations
4.4.7. Systematic solution of the ?Q-equations
4.5 Concluding remarks
4.6 Problems

5. Design of Pipe Networks
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1. Solving for pipe diameters
5.1.2. Solution based on the Darcy-Weisbach equation
5.1.3. Solution based on the Hazen-Williams equation
5.1.4. Branched pipe networks
5.2 Large branched systems of pipes
5.2.1. Network layout
5.2.2. Coefficient matrix
5.2.3. Standard Linear Algebra
5.3 Looped network design criteria
5.4 Designing special components
5.5 Developing a solution for any variables
5.5.1. Logic and use of NETWEQS1
5.5.2. Data to describe the pipe system
5.5.3. Combinations that can not be unknowns
5.6 Higher order representations of pump curves
5.6.1. Within range polynomial interpolation
5.6.2. Spline function interpolation
5.7 Sensitivity analysis
5.8 Problems

6. Extended Time Simulations and Economical Design
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Extended time simulations
6.3 Elements of engineering economics
6.3.1. Economics applied to water systems
6.3.2. Least cost
6.4 Economic network design
6.4.1. One principal supply source
6.4.2. Design guidelines for complex networks
6.5 Problems

7. Introduction to Transient Flow
7.1 Causes of transients
7.2 Quasi-steady flow
7.3 True transients
7.3.1. The Euler equation
7.3.2. Rigid-column flow in constant-diameter pipes
7.3.3. Water hammer
7.4 Problems

8. Elastic Theory of Hydraulic Transients (Water Hammer)
8.1 The equation for pressure head change ?H
8.2 Wave speed for thin-walled pipes
8.2.1. Net mass inflow
8.2.2. Change in liquid volume due to compressibility
8.2.3. Change in pipe volume due to elasticity
8.3 Wave speeds in other types of conduits
8.3.1. Thick-walled pipes
8.3.2. Circular tunnels
8.3.3. Reinforced concrete pipe
8.4 Effect of air entrainment on wave speed
8.5 Differential equations of unsteady flow
8.5.1. Conservation of mass
8.5.2. Interpretation of the differential equations
8.6 Problems

9. Solution by the Method of Characteristics
9.1 Method of characteristics, approximate governing equations
9.1.1. Development of the characteristic equations
9.1.2. The finite difference representation
9.1.3. Setting up the numerical procedure
9.1.4. Computerizing the numerical procedure
9.1.5. Elementary computer programs
9.2 Complete method of characteristics
9.2.1. The complete equations
9.2.2. The numerical solution
9.2.3. The ?s- ?t grid
9.3 Some parameter effects on solution results
9.3.1. The effect of friction
9.3.2. The effect of the size of N
9.3.3. The effect of pipe slope
9.3.4. Numerical instability and accuracy
9.4 Problems

10. Pipe System Transients
10.1 Series pipes
10.1.1. Internal boundary conditions
10.1.2. Selection of ?t
10.1.3. The computer program
10.2 Branching pipes
10.2.1. Three-pipe junctions
10.2.2. Four-pipe junctions
10.3 Interior major losses
10.4 Real valves
10.4.1. Valve in the interior of a pipeline
10.4.2. Valve at downstream end of pipe at reservoir
10.4.3. Expressing KL as a function of time
10.4.4. Linear interpolation
10.4.5. Parabolic interpolation
10.4.6. Transient valve closure effects on pressures
10.5 Pressure-reducing valves
10.5.1. Quick-response pressure reducing valves
10.5.2. Slower acting pressure-reducing or pressure-sustaining valves
10.6 Wave transmission and reflection at pipe junctions
10.6.1. Series pipe junctions
10.6.2. Tee junctions
10.6.3. Dead-end pipes
10.7 Column separation and released air
10.7.1. Column separation and released air
10.7.2. Analysis with column separation and released air
10.8 Problems

11. Pumps in Pipe Systems
11.1 Pump power failure rundown
11.1.1. Setting up the equations for booster pumps
11.1.2. Finding the change in speed
11.1.3. Solving the equations
11.1.4. Setting up the equations for source pumps
11.2 Pump startup
11.3 Problems

12. Network Transients
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Rigid-column unsteady flow in networks
12.2.1. The governing equations
12.2.2. Three-pipe problem
12.3 A general method for rigid-column unsteady flow in pipe networks
12.3.1. The method
12.3.2. An example
12.4 Several pumps supplying a pipe line
12.5 Air chambers, surge tanks and standpipes
12.6 A fully transient network analysis
12.6.1. The initial steady state solution
12.6.2. TRANSNET
12.7 Problems

13. Transient Control Devices and Procedures
13.1 Transient problems in pipe systems
13.1.1. Valve movement
13.1.2. Check valves
13.1.3. Air in lines
13.1.4. Pump startup
13.1.5. Pump power failure
13.2 Transient control
13.2.1. Controlled valve movement
13.2.2. Check valves
13.2.3. Surge relief valves
13.2.4. Air venting procedures
13.2.5. Surge tanks
13.2.6. Air chambers
13.2.7. Other techniques for surge control
13.3 Problems

14. References
Appendices
A. Numerical Methods
A.1 Introduction
A.2 Linear algebra
A.2.1. Gaussian elimination
A.2.2. Use of the linear algebra solver SOLVEQ
A.3 Numerical integration
A.3.1. Trapezoidal rule
A.3.2. Simpson's rule
A.4 Solutions to ordinary differential equations
A.4.1. Introduction
A.4.2. Runge-Kutta method
A.4.3. Use of the ODE solver ODESDOL
B. Pump characteristic curves
C. Valve loss coefficients
C.1 Globe and angle valves
C.2 Butterfly valves
C.3 Ball valves
D. Answers to selected problems


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Design and Optimization of Thermal Systems

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Engineering Design 2
1.1.1 Design Versus Analysis 2
1.1.2 Synthesis for Design 6
1.1.3 Selection Versus Design 7
1.2 Design as Part of Engineering Enterprise 9
1.2.1 Need or Opportunity 9
1.2.2 Evaluation and Market Analysis 10
1.2.3 Feasibility and Chances of Success 12
1.2.4 Engineering Design 14
1.2.5 Research and Development 15
1.2.6 Need for Optimization 16
1.2.7 Fabrication, Testing, and Production 18
1.3 Thermal Systems 19
1.3.1 Basic Characteristics 19
1.3.2 Analysis 22
1.3.3 Types and Examples 25
1.4 Outline and Scope of the Book 40
1.5 Summary 43
References 44

Chapter 2 Basic Considerations in Design 47
2.1 Formulation of the Design Problem 47
2.1.1 Requirements and Specifications 47
2.1.2 Given Quantities 50
2.1.3 Design Variables 51
2.1.4 Constraints or Limitations 53
2.1.5 Additional Considerations 55
2.2 Conceptual Design 58
2.2.1 Innovative Conceptual Design 58
2.2.2 Selection from Available Concepts 62
2.2.3 Modifications in the Design of Existing Systems 64
2.3 Steps in the Design Process 70
2.3.1 Physical System 72
2.3.2 Modeling 75
2.3.3 Simulation 76
2.3.4 Evaluation: Acceptable Design 81
2.3.5 Optimal Design 83
2.3.6 Safety Features, Automation, and Control 86
2.3.7 Communicating the Design 90
2.3.8 Patents and Copyrights 92
2.4 Computer-Aided Design 97
2.4.1 Main Features 97
2.4.2 Computer-Aided Design of Thermal Systems 98
2.5 Material Selection 104
2.5.1 Different Materials 104
2.5.2 Material Properties and Characteristics
for Thermal Systems 108
2.5.3 Selection and Substitution of Materials 110
2.6 Summary 113
References 115
Problems 116

Chapter 3 Modeling of Thermal Systems 125
3.1 Introduction 125
3.1.1 Importance of Modeling in Design 125
3.1.2 Basic Features of Modeling 125
3.2 Types of Models 128
3.2.1 Analog Models 129
3.2.2 Mathematical Models 130
3.2.3 Physical Models 130
3.2.4 Numerical Models 131
3.2.5 Interaction Between Models 133
3.2.6 Other Classifications 133
3.3 Mathematical Modeling 134
3.3.1 General Procedure 134
3.3.2 Final Model and Validation 160
3.4 Physical Modeling and Dimensional Analysis 165
3.4.1 Dimensional Analysis 166
3.4.2 Modeling and Similitude 176
3.4.3 Overall Physical Model 180
3.5 Curve Fitting 180
3.5.1 Exact Fit 181
3.5.2 Best Fit 183
3.6 Summary 194
References 196
Problems 197

Chapter 4 Numerical Modeling and Simulation 207
4.1 Numerical Modeling 208
4.1.1 General Features 208
4.1.2 Development of a Numerical Model 210
4.1.3 Available Software 211
4.2 Solution Procedures 212
4.2.1 Linear Algebraic Systems 213
4.2.2 Nonlinear Algebraic Systems 220
4.2.3 Ordinary Differential Equations 227
4.2.4 Partial Differential Equations 238
4.3 Numerical Model for a System 247
4.3.1 Modeling of Individual Components 248
4.3.2 Merging of Different Models 251
4.3.3 Accuracy and Validation 252
4.4 System Simulation 253
4.4.1 Importance of Simulation 254
4.4.2 Different Classes 256
4.4.3 Flow of Information 259
4.5 Methods for Numerical Simulation 264
4.5.1 Steady Lumped Systems 264
4.5.2 Dynamic Simulation of Lumped Systems 272
4.5.3 Distributed Systems 278
4.5.4 Simulation of Large Systems 282
4.5.5 Numerical Simulation Versus Real System 283
4.6 Summary 284
References 285
Problems 286

Chapter 5 Acceptable Design of a Thermal System:
A Synthesis of Different Design Steps 299
5.1 Introduction 299
5.2 Initial Design 300
5.3 Design Strategies 309
5.3.1 Commonly Used Design Approach 309
5.3.2 Other Strategies 309
5.3.3 Iterative Redesign Procedure 317
5.4 Design of Systems from Different Application Areas 322
5.4.1 Manufacturing Processes 323
5.4.2 Cooling of Electronic Equipment 329
5.4.3 Environmental Systems 336
5.4.4 Heat Transfer Equipment 342
5.4.5 Fluid Flow Systems 350
5.4.6 Other Areas 361
5.4.7 Design of Components Versus Design of Systems 361
5.5 Additional Considerations for Large Practical Systems 362
5.6 Summary 373
References 374
Problems 375

Chapter 6 Economic Considerations 383
6.1 Introduction 383
6.2 Calculation of Interest 385
6.2.1 Simple Interest 385
6.2.2 Compound Interest 385
6.2.3 Continuous Compounding 387
6.2.4 Effective Interest Rate 388
6.3 Worth of Money as a Function of Time 390
6.3.1 Present Worth 390
6.3.2 Future Worth 391
6.3.3 Inflation 393
6.4 Series of Payments 396
6.4.1 Future Worth of Uniform Series of Amounts 396
6.4.2 Present Worth of Uniform Series of Amounts 397
6.4.3 Continuous Compounding in a Series of Amounts 399
6.4.4 Changing Amount in Series of Payments 400
6.4.5 Shift in Time 402
6.4.6 Different Frequencies 403
6.4.7 Changes in Schedule 403
6.5 Raising Capital 405
6.5.1 Bonds 406
6.5.2 Stocks 408
6.6 Taxes 408
6.6.1 Inclusion of Taxes 409
6.6.2 Depreciation 410
6.7 Economic Factor in Design 413
6.7.1 Cost Comparison 413
6.7.2 Rate of Return 417
6.8 Application to Thermal Systems 419
6.9 Summary 421
References 421
Problems 422

Chapter 7 Problem Formulation for Optimization 429
7.1 Introduction 429
7.1.1 Optimization in Design 429
7.1.2 Final Optimized Design 431
7.2 Basic Concepts 432
7.2.1 Objective Function 432
7.2.2 Constraints 434
7.2.3 Operating Conditions Versus Hardware 437
7.2.4 Mathematical Formulation 438
7.3 Optimization Methods 440
7.3.1 Calculus Methods 440
7.3.2 Search Methods 441
7.3.3 Linear and Dynamic Programming 442
7.3.4 Geometric Programming 444
7.3.5 Other Methods 444
7.4 Optimization of Thermal Systems 447
7.4.1 Important Considerations 447
7.4.2 Different Approaches 448
7.4.3 Different Types of Thermal Systems 449
7.4.4 Examples 451
7.4.5 Consideration of the Second Law of Thermodynamics 455
7.5 Practical Aspects in Optimal Design 457
7.5.1 Choice of Variables for Optimization 457
7.5.2 Sensitivity Analysis 459
7.5.3 Dependence on Objective Function: Trade-Offs 461
7.5.4 Multi-Objective Optimization 462
7.5.5 Part of Overall Design Strategy 464
7.5.6 Change of Concept or Model 465
7.6 Summary 466
References 467
Problems 468

Chapter 8 Lagrange Multipliers 473
8.1 Introduction to Calculus Methods 473
8.2 The Lagrange Multiplier Method 475
8.2.1 Basic Approach 475
8.2.2 Physical Interpretation 477
8.2.3 Significance of the Multipliers 485
8.3 Optimization of Unconstrained Problems 486
8.3.1 Use of Gradients for Optimization 487
8.3.2 Determination of Minimum or Maximum 487
8.3.3 Conversion of Constrained to Unconstrained Problem 489
8.4 Optimization of Constrained Problems 491
8.5 Applicability to Thermal Systems 494
8.5.1 Use of Curve Fitting 494
8.5.2 Examples 495
8.5.3 Inequality Constraints 499
8.5.4 Some Practical Considerations 500
8.5.5 Computational Approach 501
8.6 Summary 503
References 504
Problems 505

Chapter 9 Search Methods 511
9.1 Basic Considerations 511
9.1.1 Importance of Search Methods 512
9.1.2 Types of Approaches 513
9.1.3 Application to Thermal Systems 514
9.2 Single-Variable Problem 515
9.2.1 Uniform Exhaustive Search 517
9.2.2 Dichotomous Search 519
9.2.3 Fibonacci Search 521
9.2.4 Golden Section and Other Search Methods 523
9.2.5 Comparison of Different Elimination Methods 524
9.3 Unconstrained Search with Multiple Variables 527
9.3.1 Lattice Search 529
9.3.2 Univariate Search 530
9.3.3 Steepest Ascent/Descent Method 532
9.4 Multivariable Constrained Optimization 537
9.4.1 Penalty Function Method 537
9.4.2 Search Along a Constraint 542
9.5 Examples of Thermal Systems 547
9.6 Summary 551
References 553
Problems 554

Chapter 10 Geometric, Linear, and Dynamic Programming and Other Methods for Optimization 559
10.1 Geometric Programming 559
10.1.1 Applicability 560
10.1.2 Unconstrained Optimization 561
10.1.3 Mathematical Proof 570
10.1.4 Constrained Optimization 573
10.1.5 Nonzero Degree of Difficulty 578
10.2 Linear Programming 579
10.3 Dynamic Programming 588
10.4 Other Methods 590
10.5 Summary 591
References 592
Problems 593

Chapter 11 Knowledge-Based Design and Additional Considerations 599
11.1 Knowledge-Based Systems 599
11.1.1 Introduction 600
11.1.2 Basic Components 602
11.1.3 Expert Knowledge 607
11.1.4 Design Methodology 609
11.1.5 Application to Thermal Systems 610
11.2 Additional Constraints 621
11.3 Professional Ethics 623
11.4 Sources of Information 625
11.5 An Overview of Design of Thermal Systems 628
11.6 Summary 631
References 632
Problems 633

Design Projects 635
Appendix A Computer Programs 639
Appendix B Material Properties 659
Appendix C Interest Tables 679
Appendix D Heat Transfer Correlations 687
Index 697

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Process Piping Drafting

CONTENTS
PREFACE
INTRODUCTION ix
I EQUIPMENT TERMS I
Definition of Terms
Linework Exercise
Lettering Exercise

2- BASIC PIPING DATA 9
Pipe, Fittings, Flanges, Valves
Symbols for Flanges & Fittings
Symbols for Valves & Flanges
Dimensions for Valves & Fittings
Projection Exercise-welded piping
Projection Exercise-screwed piping

3- FLOW DIAGRAMS INSTRUMENTATION 27
Process Flow Sheet
Mechanical Flow Sheet
Utility Flow Sheet
Instrumentation

4- ABBREVIATIONS SPECIFICATIONS 50
Abbreviations for Piping Draftsmen
Piping Specifications
Insulation
Pipe Line List
Piping Specialty List


5- NOMENCLATURE, PLANS DETAILS 72
Nomenclature: Vessels, Structural, Concrete & Electrical
Plot Plan
Foundation Location Plan
Piping Drawing Index Plan
Standard Piping Details
Bridles
Traced Lines

6- PIPING DESIGN NOTES PLANS 89
Piping Design Instructions
Meter Runs
Piping on Vertical Vessels
Standard Pipe Spacing
Flange Bolting

7- PIPING PLANS e PROCESS EQUIPMENT 99
Piping Plan and Elevation
Piping Isometric Drawing
Vessel Drawings
Exchanger Drawing
Pump Drawing
Concrete Drawings
Steel Drawings

8- ISOMETRIC DEFINITIONS, DIMENSIONING
CALL-OUTS 139
Isometric Definition
Configuration Problems
Detail Dimensioning
Isometric Call-Outs
Isometric Problems

9- PROBLEMS 166
Trigonometric Problems
Orthographic Projections
Natural Functions

10- FINAL TEST 180
Student Exercise-40 Hours
Make Piping Drawings
Make Piping Isometrics

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Piping and Pipeline Engineering

Contents
PREFACE xv
CHAPTER 1 CODES, STANDARDS AND PRACTICE 1
CHAPTER 2 FUNDAMENTALS 38
CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS 46
CHAPTER 4 INTERNAL PRESSURE 84
CHAPTER 5 EXTERNAL PRESSURE 122
CHAPTER 6 LAYOUT AND SUPPORTS 126
CHAPTER 7 FLEXIBILITY AND FATIGUE 152
CHAPTER 8 VIBRATION 182
CHAPTER 9 FLUID TRANSIENTS 208
CHAPTER 10 WIND DESIGN 232
CHAPTER 11 SEISMIC DESIGN AND RETROFIT 236
CHAPTER 12 EXPLOSIONS 257
CHAPTER 13 SUBSEA PIPELINES 270
CHAPTER 14 BURIED PIPE 283
CHAPTER 15 WELDING 291
CHAPTER 16 EXAMINATION308
CHAPTER 17 PIPE FLANGE 325
CHAPTER 18 MECHANICAL JOINTS 349
CHAPTER 19 LEAK AND PRESSURE TEST 354
CHAPTER 20 DEGRADATION IN SERVICE 366
CHAPTER 21 FITNESS-FOR-SERVICE 386
CHAPTER 22 MAINTENANCE, RELIABILITY AND FAILURE ANALYSIS 411
CHAPTER 23 REPAIR TECHNIQUES 435
CHAPTER 24 PLASTIC PIPE 453
CHAPTER 25 VALVES 464
APPENDIX STANDARD PIPE SIZES 483
INDEX 489

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Piping Materials Selection and Application

PREFACE
The Piping Material Selection Guide for Process Systems, as the title
states, is a guide for the piping engineer who is faced with the challenge
of choosing the correct piping materials of construction.
The list of codes and standards in ASME B31.3 that apply to process
plant design is huge, and it is impossible to cover them all in one book.
Instead I use ASME B31.3 as the basic construction code, and I briefly
touch on the most significant codes and standards applicable to the
design of the plant.
The EPC contractor is responsible for having all the necessary codes
and standards available at all times during the design, construction, and
commissioning of the plant. These standards must be the final reference
point, and the objective of this book is to guide the piping engineer to
that point.
Although the function of a piping material engineer is driven by code
and specifications, there is no substitute for all-around experience. This
can be gained from several areas: the design office, a manufacturer’s
facility, the fabrication yard, as well as the job site. Exposure to as many of
these facets of the process industry as possible is beneficial to the growth
of an engineer’s professional development. Each sector has its own
characteristics, and knowledge of one aids the comprehension the others.
The design office is where the project evolves and is engineered and
developed on paper. A manufacturer’s facility is were the numerous
individual components essential for construction of the project are built.
For piping this includes pipe, fittings, flanges, valves, bolts, gaskets, and
the like. In the fabrication yard, the welded piping components are
‘‘spooled’’ up for transportation to the job site. At the job site, paper and
hardware come together and final fabrication and erection take place.
The various piping systems are commissioned, and the project is brought
to its conclusion and finally handed over to the client’s operators. All
these phases of a project are equally important, and it is very important
vii
that the engineer understand the challenges that arise in these very
different environments.
The Piping Material Selection Guide for the Process Systems is written
to be useful to all piping engineers and designers involved in the design,
construction, and commissioning of oil, gas, and petrochemical facilities.
However, it is primarily aimed at the piping material engineer, the
individual responsible for the selection and the specifying of piping
material for process facilities.
Piping engineering and the materials used in the construction of piping
systems is a huge subject. It is virtually impossible to cover all aspects of
it in depth in one volume. In this book, I try to cover the most important
areas and introduce the reader to the fundamentals of the specific
subjects. I suggest readers skim through the pages to gain a familiarity
with the topics covered. I have introduced each subject and then linked it
with text and technical data. I limit my use of opinions and concentrate
on mandatory statements that are set out in the design codes. These
standards must be met or improved on.
Most of the individuals I have worked with have developed their skills
by working with fellow engineers who imparted their knowledge to the
uninitiated. The ingredients that go into making a good engineer are not
fully taught in schools, colleges, or universities, but by experience gained
listening to more-knowledgeable colleagues, absorbing information, and
through personal research.
To be a complete engineer, it is essential not only to have knowledge
but to share this knowledge with fellow piping engineers and other
colleagues. A piping material engineer’s role is driven by codes,
standards, technical data, and catalogued information. When asked a
question I believe that, if possible, the answer should be supported with a
copy from the relevant source of information. This allows recipients to
file the information, makes them more confident, and protects the piping
material engineer. It is a small action that pays big dividends.
Despite several excellent textbooks on piping design and piping stress,
I know of none that specializes in piping materials. It is not the intention
of this book to explain the geometry of the numerous piping components
and how their final shape is computed. All the piping components
discussed in this book are covered by strict design codes or recognized
manufacturers’ standards. Their dimensions are carefully calculated and
unlikely to change dramatically in the near or distant future. Indeed,
most have remained the same dimensionally for several decades and
longer.
viii Preface
Piping engineering is not rocket science. As a fellow engineer, not a
piping specialist, once said, ‘‘I thought that the Romans sorted piping
out.’’ Not true, but I see where my colleague was coming from. The
piping content of a project is generally the largest of all the disciplines in
material value, engineering, and construction personnel. Piping engineering
also creates large volumes of paper in the form of drawings,
specifications, and support documents. What it lacks in technical
complexity it more than makes up for by the volumes of paperwork,
which seem to increase each year.
So, to conclude, although piping may not advance as quickly as other
disciplines, such as instrumentation and electrical, which are driven
greatly by vendors and technology, piping does not stand still. New
materials are always being developed, as well as fresh methods of
manufacturing and new designs, that constantly fine-tune what we
inherited from our friends the Romans.
If this book does not completely answer your questions, I feel sure that
it will guide you in the right direction.
Peter Smith
Fano, Italy
June 2004


Preface vii
1 The Piping Material Engineer 1
2 Process Industry Codes and Standards 11
3 Materials 37
4 Piping Components 131
5 Joints for Process Piping Systems 171
6 Bolts and Gaskets 201
7 Valves 213
8 Glossaries and Abbreviations 243

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Process Plant Piping Maintenance & Repair

I. Introduction

The structural integrity of piping systems must be maintained after they have been placed into service so that they will provide safe, reliable, long-term operation. Therefore, existing piping systems require periodic inspection to determine their current condition and permit evaluation of their structural integrity to permit future operation. Should unacceptable deterioration or flaws be identified, pipe repairs may be required. Existing piping systems might also require alterations or rerating to accommodate new operational needs (or to

accommodate deterioration that cannot or will not be repaired).

Process plants must adopt and follow established procedures for the inspection, repair, alteration, and rerating of piping systems after they have been placed into service. API 570, “Piping Inspection Code – Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Rerating of In-Service Piping Systems,” provides the basic procedures to be followed by process plants. This course is based on API 570.

Scope of API 570

API 570 was developed for the petroleum refining and chemical process industries. But since most of its requirements have broad applicability, it may be used for any piping system. It must be used by organizations that maintain or have access to an authorized inspection agency, a repair organization, and technically qualified piping engineers, inspectors, and examiners (as defined in API 570).

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Mechanical Estimating Manual Sheet Metal Piping & Plumbing

Contents
Preface xi
Section I—HOW TO PREPARE SHEET METAL AND PIPING ESTIMATES
Chapter

1 Successful Estimating Principles 3
Crux of Successful Contracting 3
Primary Goals of Contracting and Bidding 3
Problems and Causes of Poor Estimating 3
Estimating Competence Required 4
The Eight Facets of the Estimating Diamond 4
Performance Standards for Complete and Accurate Estimates 5
Fundamental Bidding Rules 5
How to Estimate Labor Accurately and Realistically 8
Do Your Homework 9
Use Time Saving Estimating Techniques 9
Apply Valid Overhead and Profi t Markups 10

2 Systematic, Effi cient, Accurate Estimating Procedures 11
Steps in the Estimating Procedure 11
Checking Estimates 12
Scope of Complete Sheet Metal Estimate, Check-off List 16
Heating Equipment Check-off List 17
Cooling Equipment Check-off List 18
End of Bid Factors Check-off List 18
Remodeling Work Check-off List 19
15 Bastards with No Regular Homes 20

3 Sample HVAC Estimate and Forms 23
Overview of Sample Job 23
Purpose of Forms 23
Specifi cations on Sample Job 24
IBM Offi ce Drawing 25
Sample Filled Out Estimating Forms 26
Calculating Labor Costs Per Hour 31

Section II —BUDGET ESTIMATING
Chapter
4 Budget Estimating 37
Budget Estimates 37
Semi-Detailed Scope Budget Estimates 37
Detailed Estimates 38
Budget Estimating HVAC Costs and Engineering Loads 38
Budget Estimating Galvanized Ductwork 39

Section III —EQUIPMENT ESTIMATING
Chapter
5 Heating and Cooling Equipment 59
Chilled and Hot Water Pumps 60
Hot Water Reheat Coils 61
Electric Duct Heaters 62
Duct Heaters 63
Unit Heaters 63
Gas Fired Cast Iron Boilers 64
Baseboard Heating 65
Infra Red Units 66
Electric Baseboard Heating 66
Wall Heaters 67
DX Evaporator Coils 68
Chilled Water Coils 69
Centrifugal Water Cooled Chillers 70
Reciprocating Chillers 71
Cooling Towers 73
Heat Pumps 74
Condensing Units 75

6 HVAC Units and Air Distribution Equipment 77
Rooftop Units 78
Air Handling Units 80
Self Contained Air Conditioning Units 83
Dampers 87
Louvers 89
Estimating Registers 90
Ceiling Diffusers 91
VAV Terminal Units, Components etc 92
Filter Labor 96

7 Plumbing Fixtures and Specialties 97

8 Air Pollution and Heat Recovery Equipment 101
Air pollution equipment 101

Section IV— SHEET METAL ESTIMATING
9 Sheet Metal Estimating Basics 109
Requirements of a Profi cient Sheet Metal Estimator 109
Types of Ductwork 111
Procedure for Taking Off Ductwork 112
Types of Ductwork Connections 113
Methods of Figuring Ductwork Weight 114
Methods of Calculating Ductwork Labor 115
Material Data 124
Correction Factors 125

10 Galvanized Ductwork 129
Estimating Galvanized Ductwork by the Piece 129
Estimating Galvanized Ductwork by the Pound 136
Medium and High Pressure Ductwork 142
Automatic Duct Coil Line Fabrication 143

11 Spiral and Light Gauge Round Ductwork 145
Round Duct Gauge Data 146
Furnace Pipe Flexible Tubing and Flues 146
Spiral Pipe and Fittings 147

12 Estimating Fiberglass Ductwork 155
Introduction 155
Fiberglass Ductwork Construction 156
Pricing Sheet Metal Components 158
Estimate Summary and Extension Sheet 158

13 Heavy Gauge Ductwork 159
Types of Industrial Exhaust Ductwork 159
Rectangular Black Iron 159
Round Black Iron Ductwork 166
Rolled Steel Angle Rings 171
Example of Round Black Iron 172
Aluminum 173
Stainless Steel 175
FRP Ductwork 177
FRP Coated Galvanized Ductwork 179
Labor Multipliers for Heavy Gauge Ductwork 180
Air Pollution Estimating 180

14 Sheet Metal Specialties and Acoustical Lining 187
Access Doors, Belt Guards, Drain Pans 187
Flexible Connections, Hoods, Stands and Platforms 188
Roof Hoods 189
Turning Vanes 190
Splitter Dampers 191
Sheet Metal Housings 192
Acoustic Lining 192

15 Miscellaneous Labor Operations 195
Drafting and Sketching Labor 195
Field Measuring and Sketching Labor 196
Estimating Air Testing and Balancing 196
Estimating Ductwork Leak Testing 199

Section V —PIPING ESTIMATING
Chapter
16 Piping Estimating Basics 203
Requirements of a Profi cient Piping Estimator 203
Sample Estimate 207
17 Pressure Pipe, Fittings and Insulation 217
Pressure Piping and Fittings Tables for
Threaded, Welded, Flanged, Grooved and Associated Labor 218
Copper Tubing, L, K, K Labor and Pricing etc. 236

18 Valves and Specialties 253
Bronze #125, #150 Valves 254
Iron #125, #150 Valves 256
Specialty Valves 260
19 DWV Pipe and Fittings 271
Copper Tubing, DWV 272
PVC DWV Schedule 40 274
ABS DWV 278
Cast Iron Hub and Spigot DWV 280

Section VI—CONTRACTING FOR PROFIT
Chapter
20 Markups for Overhead and Profi t 287
Understanding and Applying Correct Overhead and Profi t Factors 287

21 Contracting for Profi t 295
What Determines Your Profi tability 295
How to Legitimately Reduce Costs on a Bid 296
Star Method of Reducing Ductwork and Piping Costs 297

22 Computerized Estimating 305


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Fluid-Piping-Systems

Content
1 1. INTRODUCTION 3
1.1 BACKGROUND 3

2 FUNDAMENTALS 4
2.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 4
2.2 TYPES OF FLUID FLOW 4
2.3 PRESSURE LOSS IN PIPES 5
2.4 STANDARD PIPE DIMENSIONS 7
2.5 PRESSURE DROP IN COMPONENTS IN PIPE SYSTEMS 7
2.6 VALVES 8

3 COMPRESSED AIR PIPING 12
3.1 INTRODUCTION 12
3.2 PIPING MATERIALS 12
3.3 COMPRESSOR DISCHARGE PIPING 12
3.4 PRESSURE DROP 13
3.5 PIPING SYSTEM DESIGN 14
3.6 COMPRESSED AIR LEAKAGE 16
3.7 LEAKAGE REDUCTION 17

4 STEAM DISTRIBUTION 19
4.1 INTRODUCTION 19
4.2 ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS 19
4.3 SELECTION OF PIPE SIZE 20
4.4 PIPING INSTALLATION 23

5 WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 24
5.1 RECOMMENDED VELOCITIES 24
5.2 RECOMMENDED WATER FLOW VELOCITY ON SUCTION SIDE OF PUMP 25

6 THERMAL INSULATION 26
6.1 INTRODUCTION 26
6.2 HEAT LOSSES FROM PIPE SURFACES 27
6.3 CALCULATION OF INSULATION THICKNESS 28
6.4 INSULATION MATERIAL 29
6.5 RECOMMENDED VALUES OF COLD AND HOT INSULATION 31
6.6 ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION 32

7 CASE STUDIES 34
7.1 PRESSURE DROP REDUCTION IN WATER PUMPING 34
7.2 PRESSURE DROP REDUCTION IN COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM 35
7.3 REPLACEMENT OF GLOBE VALVES WITH BUTTERFLY VALVES 35
7.4 REDUCTION IN PRESSURE DROP IN THE COMPRESSED AIR NETWORK 36
7.5 THERMAL INSULATION IN STEAM DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 37
7.6 COMPRESSED AIR LEAKAGE REDUCTION AT HEAVY ENGINEERING PLANT 37
7.7 REDUCING STEAM HEADER PRESSURE 38
ANNEXURE-1: REFERENCES 40


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Construction Health and Safety Training Manual

Content
1. Introduction1
The purpose of the manual 1

2. Safety organization and management 3
2.1 Safety policies 3
2.2 Safety organization 3
2.2.1 Safety officer/manager 5
2.2.2 Supervisors 6
2.2.3 Workers 6
2.3 Safety committees 6
2.4 Safety representatives 7
2.5 Outside agencies 7
2.5.1 Government intervention 7
2.5.2 International agreements 8

3. Site planning and layout 9
3.1 Site layout 9
3.2 Site tidiness 10

4. Excavations 13
4.1 General measures 13
4.1.1 Hazards 13
4.1.2 Causes of accidents 13
4.1.3 Safety precautions to prevent the collapse of excavations, and falls 13
4.1.4 Inspection 14
4.1.5 Adjoining buildings 14
4.1.6 Edges 14
4.1.7 Vehicles 15
4.1.8 Access 15
4.1.9 Lighting 15
4.2 Buried or underground services 16
4.2.1 Electrical cables 16
4.2.2 Other services 16

5. Scaffolding 19
5.1 Hazards19
5.2 Independent tied scaffolds 19
5.2.1 Ties 20
5.2.2 Working platforms and gangways 20
5.2.3 Guard-rails and toe boards 21
5.3 Single pole or putlog scaffolds 21
5.4 Tower scaffolds 23
5.4.1 Causes of accidents 23
5.4.2 Height limitations 24
5.4.3 Structure 24
5.4.4 The working platform 24
5.4.5 Movement 25
5.5 Trestle scaffolds 25
5.6 Suspended scaffolds 26
5.6.1 Access to the scaffold 26
5.6.2 Suspension ropes 26
5.6.3 The platform 27
5.6.4 Erection and training 27

6. Ladders 29
6.1 Limitations 29
6.2 Secure your ladder 29
6.3 Safe use of ladders 30
6.4 Care of ladders 31
6.5 Stepladders 32

7. Hazardous processes 33
7.1 Roof work 33
7.1.1 Flat roofs 33
7.1.2 Sloping roofs 34
7.1.3 Fragile roofs 34
7.1.4 Crawling boards and roof ladders 36
7.2 Steel erection 37
7.2.1 Design planning 37
7.2.2 Supervision 37
7.2.3 Work preparation 37
7.2.4 Means of access to working areas 38
7.3 Work over water 40
7.4 Demolition 41
7.4.1 Planning and training 41
7.4.2 The demolition process 42
7.4.3 Tanks and vessels 43
7.4.4 Health hazards 43
7.5 Confined spaces 43
7.5.1 Hazards43
7.5.2 Safety precautions 44
7.5.3 Safety and rescue equipment 45
7.6 Piling 46
7.6.1 General precautions 46
7.6.2 Bored piles 46

8. Vehicles47
8.1 Causes of accidents 47
8.2 Safety precautions 47
8.3 Overturning 48
8.4 Loading 49

9. Movement of materials 51
9.1 Cranes 51
9.1.1 Erection 51
9.1.2 Signalling 51
9.1.3 Overloading 51
9.1.4 Safe load indicators 51
9.1.5 Inspection and maintenance 52
9.1.6 Mobile cranes 52
9.1.7 Tower cranes 53
9.1.8 Cranes used in demolition 54

9.1.9 Lifting appliances used as cranes 54
9.1.10 Slings and ropes 54
9.2 Goods hoists 54
9.2.1 Erection 55
9.2.2 Enclosure 55
9.2.3 Safety devices 55
9.2.4 Operation 55
9.2.5 Loads 55
9.2.6 Carriage of persons 55
9.2.7 Testing and examination 55
9.3 Gin or pulley wheels 56
9.3.1 Causes of accidents 56
9.3.2 Safety measures 57
9.4 Manual handling 57
9.4.1 Lifting and carrying58
9.4.2 Lifting technique 58

10. Working positions, tools and equipment 61
10.1 Fitting work to people: Ergonomics 61
10.1.1 Strenuous and heavy physical work 61
10.1.2 Static loads 62
10.1.3 Working postures 62
10.1.4 Sitting and standing positions.63
10.1.5 Work in cabins 63
10.2 Hand tools 63
10.2.1 Selection, use and maintenance64
10.3 Power-driven machinery 64
10.3.1 Hazards 64
10.3.2 Safety precautions 65
10.3.3 Circular saws 66
10.3.4 Compressed air tools 66
10.3.5 Cartridge-operated tools 66
10.4 Electrical equipment 67
10.4.1 Electric shock 67
10.4.2 Treatment for electric shock 68
10.4.3 Existing supplies 68
10.4.4 Electrical installations 68
10.4.5 Portable electrical tools and equipment 69
10.5 Welding and cutting 70
10.5.1 Electric arc welding 70
10.5.2 Gas welding 71
10.5.3 Fumes 71
10.6 Liquefied petroleum gases 71
10.6.1 Storage 72
10.6.2 Handling 72

11. The working environment 73
11.1 Chemical substances 73
11.1.1 Chemicals and their risks 73
11.1.2 Entry into the body 73
11.1.3 Preventive measures 74
11.1.4 Highly flammable chemicals..76
11.2 Hazardous substances 76
11.2.1 Cement 76
11.2.2 Asbestos 77
11.2.3 Lead 78
11.3 AIDS 78
11.3.1 Precautions 78
11.3.2 First aid 79
11.4 Noise and vibration 79
11.4.1 Noise control 79
11.4.2 Hearing protection 80
11.4.3 Vibration 80
11.5 Lighting 80
11.6 Exposure to heat and cold 81
11.6.1 Hot weather 81
11.6.2 How to keep cool 81
11.6.3 Cold weather 81
11.6.4 How to keep warm 82

12. Personal protective equipment (PPE) 83
12.1 Why do you need PPE? 83
12.2 Head protection 83
12.3 Foot protection 83
12.4 Hand and skin protection 85
12.5 Eye protection 85
12.6 Respiratory protection 86
12.6.1 Correct choice of respirator 86
12.7 Safety harness 88

13. Welfare facilities 89
13.1 Why welfare facilities? 89
13.2 Sanitary facilities 90
13.3 Washing facilities 90
13.4 Facilities for supplying food and drink, and eating meals 90
13.4.1 The meal area 91
13.4.2 Drinking-water 91
13.5 Facilities for changing, storing and drying clothes 92
13.6 Rest breaks 92
13.6.1 Frequency of rest breaks 92
13.7 Child-care facilities 92
13.7.1 Basic provisions 92
13.7.2 Watch the children’s movements 92
13.8 First aid 93
13.8.1 Emergency action 93
13.8.2 Equipment and training 94
13.8.3 Moving an injured person 94
13.8.4 Investigation 94
13.9 Fire precautions 94


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PRELIMINARY CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

Preface x i
1 . INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS DESIGN 1
Research, 2.
Other Sources of Innovations, 3.
Process Engineering,4.
Professional Responsibilities, 7.
Competing Processes,8 .
Typical Problems a Process Engineer Tackles, 9.
Comparison with A l t e r n a t i v e s , 1 4 .
C o m p l e t i n g t h e Project, 16.
Units,17.
References, 18.
Bibliography, 18.

2 . SITE SELECTION
Major Site Location Factors, 25.
Other Site Location Factors, 34.
Case Study: Site Selection, 48.
References, 54.

3 . THE SCOPE 57
The Product, 60.
Capacity, 60.
Quality, 66. Raw Material Storage,67.
Product Storage, 68.
The Process, 69.
Waste Disposal,Utilities, Shipping and Laboratory Requirements, 70.
Plans for Future Expansion,70.
Hours of Operation, 71.
Completion Date, 71.
Safety, 71.
Case Study: Scope, 72.
Scope Summary,75.
References, 78.

4 . PROCESS DESIGN AND SAFETY
Chemistry, 79.
Separations, 80.
Unit Ratio Material Balance,8 4 .
Detailed Flow Sheet, 85.
Safety, 89.
Case Study: Process Design,97.
Change of Scope, 103.
References, 103.

5 . EQUIPMENT LIST
Sizing of Equipment, 106.
Planning for Future Expansion,111.
Materials of Construction, 113.
Temperature and Pressure,113.
Laboratory Equipment, 114.
Completion of Equipment List,114.
Rules of Thumb, 114.
Case Study: Major Equipment Required,117.
Change of Scope, 132.
References, 133.

6. LAYOUT 141
New Plant Layout, 141.
Expansion and Improvements of Existing Facilities, 152.
Case Study: Layout and Warehouse Requirements,153.
References, 158.
7 . PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION
Product Quality 160.
Product Quantity, 160.
Plant Safety,161.
Manual or Automatic Control, 161.
Control System,162.
Variables to be Measured, 162.
Final Control Element,163.
Control and Instrumentation Symbols, 164.
Averaging versus Set Point Control, 166.
Material Balance Control, 167.
Tempered Heat Transfer, 168.
Cascade Control, 170.
Feedforward Control,171.
Blending, 172.
Digital Control, 172.
Pneumatic versus Electronic Equipment, 173.
Case Study: Instrumentation and Control,174.
References, 180.

8. ENERGY AND UTILITY BALANCES
AND MANPOWER NEEDS 181
Conservation of Energy, 182.
Energy Balances, 183.
Sizing Energy Equipment, 191.
Planning for Expansion, 204.
Lighting,205.
Ventilation, Space Heating and Cooling, and Personal Water Requirements,207.
Utility Requirements, 209.
Manpower Requirements,210.
Rules of Thumb, 2 11.
Case Study: Energy Balance and Utility Assessment, 213.
Change of Scope, 231.
References, 232.

9 . COST ESTIMATION 237
Cost Indexes, 237.
How Capacity Affects Costs, 239.
Factored Cost Estimate, 246.
Improvements on the Factored Estimate, 249.
Module Cost Estimation, 254.
Unit Operations Estimate, 258.
Detailed Cost Estimate, 263.
Accuracy of Estimates, 264.
Case Study: Capital Cost Estimation, 264.
References, 275.

1 0 . ECONOMICS
Cost of Producing a Chemical, 28 1.
Capital, 284.
Elementary Profitability Measures, 285.
Time Value of Money, 293. Compound Interest,295.
Net Present Value-A Good Profitability Measure, 307.
Rate of Return-Another Good Profitability Measure, 311.
Comparison of Net Present Value and Rate of Return Methods, 316.
Proper Interest Rates,317.
Expected Return on the Investment, 323.
Case Study: Economic Evaluation, 324.
Problems, 330.
References, 338.


1 1 . DEPRECIATION, AMORTIZATION, DEPLETION
AND INVESTMENT CREDIT
Depreciation, 339.
Amortization, 348.
Depletion Allowance,
348. Investment Credit, 349.
Special Tax Rules, 350.
Case Study:The Net Present Value and Rate of Return, 350.
Problems.351.
References, 352.

1 2 . DETAILED ENGINEERING,
CONSTRUCTION, AND STARTUP
Detailed Engineering, 353.
Construction 361.
Startup,363.
References. 367.

PLANNING TOOLS-CPM AND PERT CPM, 370.
Manpower and Equipment Leveling, 376.
Cost and Schedule Control, 380.
Time for Completing Activity, 380.
Computers, 381.
PERT, 382.
Problems, 386.
References, 390.

OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES
Starting Point, 392.
One-at-a-Time Procedure, 393.
Single Variable Gptimizations, 396.
Multivariable Optimizations, 396.
End Game,409.
Algebraic Objective Functions, 409.
Optimizing Optimizations ,409.
Optimization and Process Design, 410.
References, 412.

DIGITAL COMPUTERS AND PROCESS ENGINEERING
Computer Programs, 416.
Sensitivity, 420.
Program Sources,420.
Evaluation of Computer Programs, 421.
References, 422.

POLLUTION AND ITS ABATEMENT
What is Pollution?, 424.
Determining Pollution Standards,425.
Meeting Pollution Standards, 428.
Air Pollution Abatement Methods, 431.
Water Pollution Abatement Methods, 437.
BOD and COD, 447.
Concentrated Liquid and Solid Waste Treatment Procedures,452.
References, 454.
ix

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Machinery Component Maintenance and Repair

Contents
Foreword
Acknowledgments
Part I: Background to Process Machinery Maintenance Programming
1 Machinery Maintenance: An Ovaview
2 Maintenance Organization and Control for Multi-Plant Corporations
3 Machinery Foundations and Grouting
4 Process Machinery Piming

Part II: Aliflnment and Balancing
5 Machinery Alignment
6 Balancing of Machinery Components

Part 111: Maintenance and Repair of Machinery Components
7 Ball Bearing Maintenance and Replacement
8 Repair and Maintenance of Mechanical Seals and Rotating Equipment Components
9 Centrifugal Compressor Rotor Repair
10 Protecting Machinery Parts Against loss of Surface
Index

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Gas Lift Design and Technology

Total 229 pages 3 mb

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