FREE ENGINEERING BOOK

Basic Civil Engineering

2012-01-29T20:32:00.000-08:00

All engineering students should know basic civil engineering since they need interaction with civil engineers in their routine works. Hence all important aspects of civil engineering are taught as elements of civil engineering in all over the world. It covers entire syllabus on Basic Civil Engineering.

The author has tried to make it students friendly by providing neat sketches and illustrations with practical problems, wherever necessary. Author hopes that students and faculty will receive this book whole-heartedly. Corrections, if any and suggestions for improvement are welcome.

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Piping Systems Manual

2011-04-05T02:39:00.000-07:00

Introduction
I have for many years wanted to compile some thoughts about piping design. As a young engineer, I was often confronted with a problem that was new to me. Older engineers and superiors would often advise me to “check the Corinth job,” or “see what we did five years ago on the XYZ project.” I would dig through stacks of files and dozens of drawings, only to find that the problems were not the same, or what they had imagined as an existing solution existed only in their failing memories. Nothing was on paper that could be applied to the problem at hand. I suppose this sort of thing applies not just to piping design, but to every other aspect of engineering as well.

In any case, I would waste a lot of time looking for answers in the existing reference materials, only to discover that many texts were silent on the topic under investigation. I would then be forced to do a lot of research and draw my own conclusions.

An example of this was when I was responsible for the start-up of a hot oil calender system, circa 1984. The mill engineers and project managers were concerned over the cleanliness of the piping. My initial reaction was that someone should be watching what the contractors were doing as they fabricated and hung the pipe to ensure that the pipe remained clean. And although this seems to be a reasonable approach, it would
not have assisted in this particular case. Nor is it common to bird-dog the fitters to ensure that hard hats, wrenches, 2 x 4’s, etc. don’t get left inside pipes.

Cleanliness of piping is not often addressed in the reference books. While there are
standards for the cleanliness of hydraulic piping and piping found in the pharmaceutical
and food and beverage industries, there was not a lot to choose from in the general
arena of industrial service piping.

Many phone calls later, I was finally able to lay my hands on a copy of PFI Standard ES-5, Cleaning of Fabricated Piping. This was a three-page document published by the Pipe Fabrication Institute. At least now I had a starting point and was able to apply this standard to the system that was causing so much heartburn among my managers. Back in 1984, one had to rely on picking up a scent, persistence, and lots of phone calls and trips to the library. Now that we have the Internet, the playing field has been leveled, although a quick Internet search of “pipe cleanliness standards” proves that today the process is still no picnic.

There are many excellent reference materials available. Some of these are referenced in this manual, and no serious student of piping should be without the Piping Handbook by Nayyar, or earlier editions by Crocker and King.

This is not a scholarly manual. I have tried to organize it in a logical manner and make the information readable and easy to access. The reader will forgive me for stating certain opinions (which should be obvious in the text, and not to be confused with facts).

Further, this text is intended to be practical rather than comprehensive. I have tried to highlight the items a piping engineer will most likely encounter, rather than to attempt an encyclopedic volume. For example, while there is much wonderful information in ASME B31.1, I have touched only on the portions one might encounter in a “typical”piping job.

Throughout the preparation of this manuscript, I was faced with trying to strike a balance between solving the tough problems we face every day, and overstating the obvious. A review of online discussion sites indicated to me that there really was no shortage of elementary questions out there, but in fairness to those who appear to be new to the profession, the more you delve into an issue, the less you seem to know1. And though I tried to remain practical, some subjects are irresistible, and so I couldn’t resist footnoting that PTFE is the only known substance to which a gecko cannot stick.

The piping engineer for a project will encounter many issues outside of any strict definition of “piping.” There will be process equipment such as tanks, heat exchangers, pumps, structures, and so on. Early in a project, the piping engineer is asked to determine the horsepower of the pumps, so that electrical equipment may be sized. This often occurs before complete process information is available. As the project continues, it is most often the piping engineer who becomes the focal point, the lightning rod, the bottle-neck.

Operating and maintenance issues must always be considered, and are often left to the piping engineer to resolve. Broad knowledge of the other disciplines’ needs, as well as the industry served, is often required. My task in writing this book was to concentrate on the piping side, though I have made some minor excursions into some of the areas described above. Perhaps if the publishers and the engineering community enjoy this book, they may permit me an opportunity to examine a broader scope at some later date.

Some Miscellaneous Thoughts on Piping
1. The trades should always be made aware that piping cleanliness is of the utmost importance. This certainly applies to the inside of the piping, valves, and fittings but also to sumps as well. Stressing this point will save a lot of time on startups.
2. Take advantage of “non-traditional” piping materials such as HDPE for underground applications. While these materials have been around for some time, “old-timers” may be reluctant to use them.

3. Determining the size of piping is usually a function of its velocity. Keep in mind that the installed cost of piping is primarily a function of labor costs and it really doesn’t cost much more to increase one pipe size to reduce friction and also to allow for future capacity. On the other hand, one has to be aware of the application. Bigger is not always better, especially if you are dealing with slurries.
4. Be aware of the possibility of back flowing through Y-type strainers since these screens may be very flimsy and will collapse when the flow reverses through them.
5. Don’t neglect startup considerations in the design of the piping system. Be sure that you have high point vents and low point drains, and have the spares and clearances to remove, clean, or replace strainer screens.
6. In some cases, you may have to consider the minimum and maximum flows through a line over its life. This is particularly important for slurries and gravity flow lines.
7. Nobody likes to pay for welders. This means that if you can minimize the number of welds, everyone (except the welders) will be happier.
8. Viton gaskets smell like cinnamon.

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Technology Piping

2011-03-01T20:45:00.000-08:00

Preface xv

New Developments

Acknowledgments xxiii

1 New Pipeline Installations

1.1 Buried Pipe History

1.1.1 The Pipe-Soil Interaction

1.2 Open-Cut Method of Pipe Installation

1.3 Comparison of Construction Operations

1.4 Trenchless Technology Methods

1.5 Three Main Divisions of Trenchless Technology Methods

1.6 Trenchless Installation Methods

1.6.1 Conventional Pipe Jacking

1.6.2 Utility Tunneling

1.6.3 Horizontal Earth Boring

1.7 Characteristics and Applications of Trenchless Construction Methods

1.8 Capabilities and Limitations of New Installation Methods

1.8.1 Conventional Pipe Jacking and Utility Tunneling

1.8.2 Horizontal Auger Boring

1.8.3 Horizontal Directional Drilling

1.8.4 Microtunneling

1.8.5 Pilot-Tube Microtunneling

1.8.6 Pipe Ramming

1.9 Planning and Safety Considerations

1.10 Cost Estimating and Bidding

1.11 Summary

2 Existing Pipeline Renewal and Replacement Methods

2.1 Introduction

2.1.1 Existing Pipe Underperformance

2.2 Planning Trenchless Renewal/Replacement Project

2.2.1 Planning Activities

2.2.2 Design Process

2.3 Applicability of Trenchless Renewal and Replacement Methods

2.3.1 Cured-in-Place Pipe

2.3.2 Sliplining

2.3.3 Modifi ed Sliplining

2.3.4 Coatings and Linings

2.3.5 Close-Fit Pipe

2.3.6 Thermoformed Pipe

2.3.7 Lateral Renewal

2.3.8 Point Source Repair or Localized Repairs

2.3.9 Trenchless Replacement Methods

2.4 Sample Decision Support Systems for Gravity and Pressure Pipes

2.5 Emerging Design Concepts for Pipeline Renewal Systems

2.5.1 Long-Term Testing

2.6 Summary

2.7 Sample Design Calculations for CIPP

2.8 Sample Specifi cations for CIPP

3 Spray-on Coatings and Linings for Renewal of Potable Water Pipe Distributions

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Water Distribution Pipe Applications

3.3 Selecting a Water Pipe Renewal Method

3.4 Installation Phases of Coatings and Linings

3.5 Planning and Site Investigations

3.6 Pipe Inspection

3.6.1 Objectives of Prelining Inspections .

3.7 Pipe Cleaning Methods .

3.8 Installation Considerations .

3.9 Disinfection Methods .

3.9.1 Tablet Method .

3.9.2 Continuous Feed Method .

3.9.3 Slug Method .

3.9.4 Ozonation .

3.9.5 U.K. Method

3.10 Pipe Sample Testing .

3.11 Quality Control .

3.12 Safety .

3.13 Reconnecting Appurtenances .

3.14 Surface Restoration and Site Clearing .

3.15 Waste Disposal .

3.16 Descriptions of Coatings and Linings Methods .

3.16.1 Cement-Mortar Linings .

3.16.2 Epoxy Linings.

3.16.3 Polyurea .

3.16.4 Polyurethane.

3.17 Installation Procedures.

3.18 Comparison of Coating and Lining Methods.

3.19 Ongoing Research on Liner and Pipe Interactions.

3.20 Summary.

4 Pipe and Pipe Installation Considerations.

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Pipeline Construction Using Open-Cut Method.

4.3 The Pipe-Soil System.

4.3.1 Rigid Pipes and Flexible Pipes .

4.3.2 Soils.

4.3.3 Pipe-Soil Interaction.

4.3.4 Behavior of Rigid Pipes.

4.3.5 Behavior of Flexible Pipes.

4.4 Common Modes of Pipeline Failures.

4.4.1 Failure Modes in Rigid Pipes.

4.4.2 Failure Modes in Flexible Pipe.

4.5 Pipe Selection Considerations.

4.6 Rigid Pipes.

4.6.1 Cement-Based Pipes .

4.6.2 Vitrifi ed Clay Pipe.

4.7 Plastics Pipes.

4.7.1 Properties of Viscoelastic Pipe Materials .

4.7.2 Polyvinyl Chloride Pipe.

4.7.3 Polyethylene Pipe.

4.7.4 Glass-Reinforced Pipe (Fiberglass Pipe) .

4.7.5 Metallic Pipes .

4.8 Summary

5 Project Considerations for Horizontal Directional Drilling

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Method Description

5.3 Maxi-HDD Considerations

5.3.1 Site Investigation Requirements

5.3.2 Drilling Operations

5.3.3 Drilled Path Design

5.3.4 Drilling Fluids

5.3.5 Product Pipe Specifi cations

5.3.6 Specifi cations and Drawings

5.3.7 Contractual Considerations

5.3.8 Inspection and Construction Monitoring

5.4 Mini-HDD Considerations

5.4.1 Mini-HDD Planning

5.4.2 Bore Path Layout and Design—Vertical Trajectory

5.4.3 Overall Bore Path Layout and Design

5.5 Pipe Load Calculations

5.5.1 Pipe Load Calculations

5.5.2 Simplifi cations for Mini-HDD Applications

5.5.3 Applications

5.5.4 Design Example

5.6 Summary

6 Project Considerations for Pipe Replacement Methods

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Pipe Bursting

6.2.1 Pneumatic Bursting Systems

6.2.2 Hydraulic Bursting Systems

6.2.3 Static Bursting Systems

6.3 Pipe Removal Systems

6.3.1 Pipe Reaming

6.3.2 Impactor Method

6.3.3 Pipe Ejection, Extraction,

or Insertion

6.3.4 Pipe Eating

6.4 Existing Pipe Materials

6.5 Replacement (New) Pipe Material

6.6 When Is Pipe Bursting a Preferred Solution?

6.7 Pipe Bursting Project Classifi cation

6.7.1 Pipe Bursting Applicability and Limitations .

6.8 Design Considerations

6.8.1 Utility Survey

6.8.2 Investigation of Existing Pipe and Site Conditions .

6.8.3 Insertion and Pulling Shaft Requirements

6.8.4 Geotechnical Investigation Requirements

6.8.5 Maximum Allowable Operating Pressure

6.8.6 Risk Assessment Plan

6.8.7 Ground Movements

6.8.8 Drawings and Specifi cations

6.8.9 Submittals

6.8.10 Quality Assurance/Quality Control Issues

6.8.11 Dispute Resolution Mechanisms

6.8.12 Permitting Issues

6.8.13 Cost Estimating

6.9 Construction Considerations

6.9.1 Typical Pipe-Bursting Operation Layout

6.9.2 Shoring the Entry and Pulling Shafts

6.9.3 Matching System Components to Reduce Risk of Failure

6.9.4 Nearby Utilities

6.9.5 Bypass Pumping

6.9.6 Dewatering

6.9.7 Ground Movement Monitoring

6.9.8 Manhole Connections

6.9.9 Pipe Connection to Other Pipes

6.9.10 Pipe Bursting Water Mains

6.9.11 Service Connections

6.9.12 Grooves on the Outside Surface of the Pipe

6.9.13 As-Built Drawings

6.9.14 Contingency Plan

6.9.15 Safety Considerations

6.9.16 Potential Problems

6.10 Sample Pipe Load Calculations

6.10.1 Introduction

6.10.2 Pulling Loads—Theoretical Considerations

6.10.3 Pulling Loads—Planning Guide

6.10.4 Pipe Collapse Conditions

6.11 Summary

7 Construction and Inspection for Cured-in-Place Pipe

7.1 Overview of the CIPP Technology

7.1.1 Background

7.1.2 Method Description

7.2 Site Compatibility and Applications

7.2.1 Effects of Pipe Defects

7.3 Main CIPP Characteristics

7.3.1 Tube Wet-Out

7.4 CIPP Installation Methods

7.4.1 Pulled-in-Place Process

7.4.2 Inversion Process

7.4.3 Preliner Options

7.4.4 CIPP Liner Curing

7.5 Inspecting CIPP Installation

7.6 Pipe Plugging or Bypass Pumping

7.7 Quality Assurance and Testing

7.7.1 CIPP Inspection and Acceptance

7.7.2 Workmanship

7.7.3 Quality Control Issues

7.8 Summary

8 Inspection and Quality Assurance/Quality Control for Trenchless Installation and Replacement Methods

8.1 Conventional Pipe Jacking

8.1.1 Introduction

8.1.2 Materials

8.1.3 Construction

8.2 Microtunneling .

8.2.1 Introduction

8.2.2 Pipe Materials

8.2.3 Construction

8.3 Pilot-Tube Microtunneling

8.3.1 Introduction .

8.3.2 Design of the Pipe

8.3.3 Construction Considerations

8.4 Horizontal Auger Boring

8.4.1 Introduction

8.4.2 Materials

8.4.3 Construction

8.5 Pipe Ramming

8.5.1 Introduction

8.5.2 Materials

8.5.3 Construction

8.6 Horizontal Directional Drilling

8.6.1 Introduction

8.6.2 Pipe Material Standards

8.6.3 Construction

8.7 Pipe Replacement

8.7.1 Introduction

8.7.2 Materials

8.7.3 Construction

8.8 Access Pits/Driving and Receiving Shafts

8.9 Settlement/Heaving Monitoring

8.10 Groundwater Control

8.11 Boring/Ramming/Bursting Failure

8.12 Contamination

8.13 Bulkhead

8.14 Work-Site Restoration

8.15 Summary

9 Planning and Safety Considerations for Trenchless Installation Methods

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Planning for a Trenchless Project

9.2.1 Surface Survey and Site Visit

9.2.2 Subsurface Investigations

9.2.3 Geotechnical Investigations

9.2.4 Permits

9.2.5 Job Site Logistics Requirements

9.2.6 Length of Installation

9.2.7 Alignment Considerations

9.2.8 Accuracy and Tolerances Including Settlement and Heave

9.3 Trenchless Safety Considerations

9.3.1 Project Safety Planning

9.3.2 Hazard Assessment

9.3.3 Risk Assessment

9.3.4 Utility Mapping

9.3.5 Contingency Plans

9.3.6 Communication

9.3.7 Equipment Operator Training

9.4 Summary

A References

B Related Documents

C Acronyms and Abbreviations .

D Glossary of Terms

E Conversion Table

Index

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Software Quality Engineering

2011-02-03T23:06:00.000-08:00

PART I OVERVIEW AND BASICS
1 Overview
1.1 Meeting People’s Quality Expectations
1.2 Book Organization and Chapter Overview
1.3 Dependency and Suggested Usage
1.4 Reader Preparation and Background Knowledge

2 What Is Software Quality?
2.1 Quality: Perspectives and Expectations
2.2 Quality Frameworks and ISO-9126
2.3 Correctness and Defects: Definitions, Properties, and Measurements
2.4 A Historical Perspective of Quality
2.5 So, What Is Software Quality?

3 Quality Assurance
3.1 Classification: QA as Dealing with Defects
3.2 Defect Prevention
3.2.1 Education and training
3.2.2 Formal method
3.2.3 Other defect prevention techniques
3.3.1 Inspection: Direct fault detection and removal
3.3.2 Testing: Failure observation and fault removal
3.3.3 Other techniques and risk identification
3.4.1 Software fault tolerance
3.4.2 Safety assurance and failure containment
3.3 Defect Reduction
3.4 Defect Containment
3.5 Concluding Remarks

4 Quality Assurance in Context
4.1 Handling Discovered Defect During QA Activities
4.2 QA Activities in Software Processes
4.3 Verification and Validation Perspectives
4.4 Reconciling the Two Views
4.5 Concluding Remarks
Problems

5 Quality Engineering
5.1 Quality Engineering: Activities and Process
5.2 Quality Planning: Goal Setting and Strategy Formation
5.3 Quality Assessment and Improvement
5.4 Quality Engineering in Software Processes
5.5 Concluding Remarks

PART II SOFTWARETESTING
6 Testing: Concepts, Issues, and Techniques
6.1 Purposes, Activities, Processes, and Context
6.2 Questions About Testing
6.3 Functional vs. Structural Testing: What to Test?
6.4 Coverage-Based vs. Usage-Based Testing: When to Stop Testing?
6.5 Concluding Remarks

Test Activities, Management, and Automation
7.1 Test Planning and Preparation
7.1.1 Test planning: Goals, strategies, and techniques
7.1.2 Testing models and test cases
7.1.3 Test suite preparation and management
7.1.4 Preparation of test procedure
7.2 Test Execution, Result Checking, and Measurement
7.3 Analysis and Follow-up
7.4 Activities, People, and Management
7.5 Test Automation
7.6 Concluding Remarks
Problems

8 Coverage and Usage Testing Based on Checklists and Partitions
8.1 Checklist-Based Testing and Its Limitations
8.2 Testing for Partition Coverage
8.3 Usage-Based Statistical Testing with Musa’s Operational Profiles
8.4 Constructing Operational Profiles
8.5 Case Study: OP for the Cartridge Support Software
8.6 Concluding Remarks
8.2.1 Some motivational examples
8.2.2 Partition: Concepts and definitions
8.2.3 Testing decisions and predicates for partition coverage
8.3.1 The cases for usage-based statistical testing
8.3.2 Musa OP: Basic ideas
8.3.3 Using OPs for statistical testing and other purposes
8.4.1 Generic methods and participants
8.4.2 OP development procedure: Musa-1
8.4.3 OP development procedure: Musa-2
8.5.1 Background and participants
8.5.2 OP development in five steps
8.5.3 Metrics collection, result validation, and lessons learned

9. Input Domain Partitioning and Boundary Testing
9.1 Input Domain Partitioning and Testing
9.2 Simple Domain Analysis and the Extreme Point Combination Strategy
9.3 Testing Strategies Based on Boundary Analysis
9.1.1 Basic concepts, definitions, and terminology
9.1.2 Input domain testing for partition and boundary problems
9.3.2 Other Boundary Test Strategies and Applications
9.4.1 Strong and approximate strategies
9.4.2 Other types of boundaries and extensions
9.4.3 Queuing testing as boundary testing
9.4 Weak 1 x 1 strategy
9.5 Concluding Remarks

10 Coverage and Usage Testing Based on Finite-State Machines
and Markov Chains
10.1 Finite-State Machines and Testing
10.1.1 Overcoming limitations of simple processing models
10.1.2 FSMs: Basic concepts and examples
10.1.3 Representations of FSMs
10.2 FSM Testing: State and Transition Coverage
10.2.1 Some typical problems with systems modeled by FSMs
10.2.2 Model construction and validation
10.2.3 Testing for correct states and transitions
10.2.4 Applications and limitations
10.3 Case Study: FSM-Based Testing of Web-Based Applications
10.3.1 Characteristics of web-based applications
10.3.2 What to test: Characteristics of web problems
10.3.3 FSMs for web testing
10.4.1 Markov chains and operational profiles
10.4.2 From individual Markov chains to unified Markov models
10.4.3 UMM construction
10.4 Markov Chains and Unified Markov Models for Testing
10.5 Using UMMs for Usage-Based Statistical Testing
10.5.1 Testing based on usage frequencies in UMMs
10.5.2 Testing based on other criteria and UMM hierarchies
10.5.3 Implementation, application, and other issues
10.6 Case Study Continued: Testing Based on Web Usages
10.6.1 Usage-based web testing: Motivations and basic approach
10.6.2 Constructing UMMs for statistical web testing
10.6.3 Statistical web testing: Details and examples
10.7 Concluding Remarks

11 Control Flow, Data Dependency, and Interaction Testing
1 1.1 Basic Control Flow Testing
1 1.1.1 General concepts
1 1.1.2 Model construction
11.1.3 Path selection
1 1.1.4 Path sensitization and other activities
11.2 Loop Testing, CFT Usage, and Other Issues
1 1.2.1 Different types of loops and corresponding CFGs
11.2.2 Loop testing: Difficulties and a heuristic strategy
1 1.2.3 CFT Usage and Other Issues
1 1.3 Data Dependency and Data Flow Testing
11.3.1 Basic concepts: Operations on data and data dependencies
11.3.2 Basics of DFT and DDG
11.3.3 DDG elements and characteristics
11.3.4 Information sources and generic procedure for DDG construction
11.3.5 Building DDG indirectly
11.3.6 Dealing with loops
1 1.4 DFT Coverage and Applications
1 1.4.1 Achieving slice and other coverage
1 1.4.2 DFT: Applications and other issues
11.4.3 DFT application in synchronization testing
1 1.5 Concluding Remarks

12 Testing Techniques: Adaptation, Specialization, and Integration
12.1 Testing Sub-Phases and Applicable Testing Techniques
12.2 Specialized Test Tasks and Techniqu,es
12.3 Test Integration f
12.4 Case Study: Hierarchical Web Testing
12.5 Concluding Remarks

PART 111 QUALITY ASSURANCE BEYOND TESTING
13 Defect Prevention and Process lmpirovement
13.1 Basic Concepts and Generic Approaches
13.2 Root Cause Analysis for Defect Prevention
13.3 Education and Training for Defect Prevention
13.4 Other Techniques for Defect Prevention
13.4.1 Analysis and modeling for defect prevention
13.4.2 Technologies, standards, and methodologies for defect prevention
13.4.3 Software tools to block defect injection
13.5.1 Process selection, definition, and conformance
13.5.2 Process maturity
13.5 Focusing on Software Processes
13.5.3 Process and quality improvement
13.6 Concluding Remarks

14 Software Inspection
14.1 Basic Concepts and Generic Process
14.2 Fagan inspection
14.3 Other Inspections and Related Activities
14.3.1 Inspections of reduced scope or team size
14.3.2 Inspections of enlarged scope or team size
14.3.3 Informal desk checks, reviews, and walkthroughs
14.3.4 Code reading
14.3.5 Other formal reviews and static analyses
14.4 Defect Detection Techniques, TooYProcess Support, and Effectiveness
14.5 Concluding Remarks
Problems
15 Formal Verification
15.1 Basic Concepts: Formal Verification and Formal Specification
15.2 Formal Verification: Axiomatic Approach
15.2. I Formal logic specifications
15.2.2 Axioms
15.2.3 Axiomatic proofs and a comprehensive example
15.3.1 Weakest pre-conditions and backward chaining
15.3.2 Functional approach and symbolic execution
15.3.3 Seeking alternatives: Model checking and other approaches
15.3 Other Approaches
15.4 Applications, Effectiveness, and Integration Issues
15.5 Concluding Remarks
Problems
16 Fault Tolerance and Failure Containment
16.1 Basic Ideas and Concepts
16.2 Fault Tolerance with Recovery Blocks
16.3 Fault Tolerance with N-Version Programming
16.3.1 NVP: Basic technique and implementation
16.3.2 Ensuring version independence
16.3.3 Applying NVP ideas in other QA activities
16.4 Failure Containment: Safety Assurance and Damage Control
16.4.1 Hazard analysis using fault-trees and event-trees
16.4.2 Hazard resolution for accident prevention
16.4.3 Accident analysis and post-accident damage control
16.5.1 Modeling and analyzing heterogeneous systems
16.5.2 Prescriptive specifications foir safety
16.5 Application in Heterogeneous Systems
16.6 Concluding Remarks

17 Comparing Quality Assurance Techniques and Activities
17.1 General Questions: Cost, Benefit, and Environment
17.2 Applicability to Different Environments
17.3 Effectiveness Comparison
17.3.1 Defect perspective
17.3.2 Problem types
17.3.3 Defect level and pervasiveness
17.3.4 Result interpretation and constructive information
17.4 Cost Comparison
17.5 Comparison Summary and Recommendations

PART IV QUANTIFIABLE QUALITY IMPROVEMENT
18 Feedback Loop and Activities for Quantifiable Quality Improvement
18.1 QA Monitoring and Measurement
18.1.1 Direct vs. indirect quality measurements
18.1.2 Direct quality measurements Result and defect measurements
18.1.3 Indirect quality measurements: Environmental, product internal,and activity measurements
18.2 Immediate Follow-up Actions and Feedback
18.3 Analyses and Follow-up Actions
18.3.1 Analyses for product release decisions
18.3.2 Analyses for other project management decisions
18.3.3 Other feedback and follow-up actions
18.4.1 Feedback loop: Implementation and integration
18.4.2 A refined quality engineering, process
18.4.3 Tool support: Strategy, implementation, and integration
18.4 Implementation, Integration, and Tool Support
18.5 Concluding Remarks

19 Quality Models and Measurements
19.1 Models for Quality Assessment
19.2 Generalized Models
19.3 Product-Specific Models
19.4 Model Comparison and Interconnections
19.5 Data Requirements and Measurement
19.6 Selecting Measurements and Models
19.7 Concluding Remarks

20 Defect Classification and Analysis
20.1 General Types of Defect Analyses
20.1.1 Defect distribution analysis
20.1.2 Defect trend analysis and defect dynamics model
20.1.3 Defect causal analysis
20.2.1 ODC concepts
20.2.2 Defect classification using ODC: A comprehensive example
20.2.3 Adapting ODC to analyze web errors
20.3. I One-way analysis: Analyzing a single defect attribute
20.3.2 Two-way and multi-way analysis: Examining cross-interactions
20.2 Defect Classification and ODC
20.3 Defect Analysis for Classified Data
20.4 Concluding Remarks

21 Risk Identification for Quantifiable Quality Improvement
21.1 Basic Ideas and Concepts
21.2 Traditional Statistical Analysis Techniques
21.3 New Techniques for Risk Identification
2 1.3.1 Principal component and discriminant analyses
2 1.3.2 Artificial neural networks and learning algorithms
21.3.3 Data partitions and tree-based modeling
21.3.4 Pattern matching and optimal set reduction
2 1.4 Comparisons and Integration
2 1.5 Risk Identification for Classified Defect Data
2 1.6 Concluding Remarks

22 Software Reliability Engineering
22.1 SRE: Basic Concepts and General Approaches
22.2 Large Software Systems and Reliability Analyses
22.3 Reliability Snapshots Using IDRMs
22.4 Longer-Term Reliability Analyses Using SRGMs TBRMs for Reliability Analysis and Improvement
22.5.1 Constructing and using TBRMs
22.5.2 TBRM Applications
22.5.3 TBRM’s impacts on reliability improvement Implementation and Software Tool Support

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Power Generation From Solid Fuel

2011-01-17T01:17:00.000-08:00

Content

1 Motivation 1
1.1 Primary Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions 1
1.1.1 Development of Primary Energy Consumption in the Past 40 Years 1
1.1.2 Developments Until 2030 1
1.2 Greenhouse Effect and Impacts on the Climate 5
1.2.1 Greenhouse Effect 6
1.2.2 Impacts8
1.2.3 Scenarios of the World Climate 8
1.3 Strategies of CO2 Reduction 10
1.3.1 Substitution 10
1.3.2 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS11
1.3.3 Energy Saving 12
1.3.4 Mitigation Scenarios 12
References 13

2 Solid Fuels 15
2.1 Fossil Fuels 15
2.1.1 Origin and Classification of Coal Types 15
2.1.2 Composition and Properties of Solid Fuels 16
2.1.3 Reserves of Solid Fuels 25
2.2 Renewable Solid Fuels 29
2.2.1 Potential and Current Utilisation 29
2.2.2 Considerations of the CO2 Neutrality of Regenerative Fuels . . 40
2.2.3 Fuel Characteristics of Biomass 42
References. 54

3 Thermodynamics Fundamentals 57
3.1 Cycles 57
3.1.1 Carnot Cycle 57
3.1.2 Joule–Thomson Process 58
3.1.3 Clausius–Rankine Cycle 61
3.2 Steam Power Cycle: Energy and Exergy Considerations64
3.2.1 Steam Generator Energy and Exergy Efficiencies 67
3.2.2 Energy and Exergy Cycle Efficiencies 69
3.2.3 Energy and Exergy Efficiency of the Total Cycle 70
References 71

4 Steam Power Stations for Electricity and Heat Generation 73
4.1 Pulverised Hard Coal Fired Steam Power Plants 73
4.1.1 Energy Conversion and System Components 73
4.1.2 Design of a Condensation Power Plant 75
4.1.3 Development History of Power Plants – Correlation Between Unit Size, Availability and Efficiency 77
4.1.4 Reference Power Plant 81
4.2 Steam Generators 81
4.2.1 Flow and Heat Transfer Inside a Tube 83
4.2.2 Evaporator Configurations 87
4.2.3 Steam Generator Construction Types 93
4.2.4 Operating Regimes and Control Modes 95
4.3 Design of a Condensation Power Plant 104
4.3.1 Requirements and Boundary Conditions 104
4.3.2 Thermodynamic Design of the Power Plant Cycle 110
4.3.3 Heat Balance of the Boiler and Boiler Efficiency 114
4.3.4 Design of the Furnace 115
4.3.5 Design of the Steam Generator and of the Heating Surfaces 121
4.3.6 Design of the Flue Gas Cleaning Units and the Auxiliaries 141
4.4 Possibilities for Efficiency Increases in the Development of a Steam Power Plant
4.4.1 Increases in Thermal Efficiencies 142
4.4.2 Reduction of Losses 161
4.4.3 Reduction of the Auxiliary Power Requirements 172
4.4.4 Losses in Part-Load Operation 175
4.4.5 Losses During Start-Up and Shutdown 178
4.4.6 Efficiency of Power Plants During Operation 179
4.4.7 Fuel Drying for Brown Coal 179
4.5 Effects on Steam Generator Construction 184
4.5.1 MembraneWall 186
4.5.2 Heating Surfaces of the Final Superheater 194
4.5.3 High-Pressure Outlet Header 201
4.5.4 Furnaces Fuelled by Dried Brown Coal 204
4.6 Developments – State of the Art and Future 206
4.6.1 Hard Coal 206
4.6.2 Brown Coal 214
References 214
5 Combustion Systems for Solid Fossil Fuels 221
5.1 Combustion Fundamentals 223
5.1.1 Drying 224
5.1.2 Pyrolysis 225
5.1.3 Ignition 227
5.1.4 Combustion of Volatile Matter 230
5.1.5 Combustion of the Residual Char 230
5.2 Pollutant Formation Fundamentals 234
5.2.1 Nitrogen Oxides 234
5.2.2 Sulphur Oxides
5.2.3 Ash formation 242
5.2.4 Products of Incomplete Combustion 245
5.3 Pulverised Fuel Firing 246
5.3.1 Pulverised Fuel Firing Systems 246
5.3.2 Fuel Preparation 249
5.3.3 Burners252
5.3.4 Dry-Bottom Firing 254
5.3.5 Slag-Tap Firing 257
5.4 Fluidised Bed Firing Systems 263
5.4.1 Bubbling Fluidised Bed Furnaces 264
5.4.2 Circulating Fluidised Bed Furnaces 266
5.5 Stoker/Grate Firing Systems 271
5.5.1 Travelling Grate Stoker Firing 271
5.5.2 Self-Raking TypeMoving-Grate Stokers 273
5.5.3 Vibrating-Grate Stokers 275
5.6 Legislation and Emission Limits 275
5.7 Methods for NOx Reduction 277
5.7.1 Combustion Engineering Measures 279
5.7.2 NOx Reduction Methods, SNCR and SCR (Secondary Measures) 302
5.7.3 Dissemination and Costs. 306
5.8 SO2-Reduction Methods 307
5.8.1 Methods to Reduce the Sulphur Content of the Fuel 308
5.8.2 Methods of Fuel Gas Desulphurisation 308
5.8.3 Dissemination and Costs 315
5.9 Particulate Control Methods 315
5.9.1 Mechanical Separators (Inertia Separators) 316
5.9.2 Electrostatic Precipitators 317
5.9.3 Fabric Filters 319
5.9.4 Applications and Costs. 321
5.10 Effect of Slag, Ash and Flue Gas on Furnace Walls and Convective Heat Transfer Surfaces (Operational Problems) 322
5.10.1 Slagging 324
5.10.2 Fouling. 334
5.10.3 Erosion335

5.10.4 High-Temperature Corrosion336
5.11 Residual Matter 340
5.11.1 Forming and Quantities 340
5.11.2 Commercial Exploitation 344
References. 351

6 Power Generation from Biomass and Waste. 361
6.1 Power Production Pathways 361
6.1.1 Techniques Involving Combustion 361
6.1.2 Techniques Involving Gasification. 363
6.2 Biomass Combustion Systems 364
6.2.1 Capacities and Types 364
6.2.2 Impact of Load and Forms of Delivery of the Fuel Types 365
6.2.3 Furnace Types 366
6.2.4 Flue Gas Cleaning and Ash Disposal 373
6.2.5 Operational Problems 377
6.3 Biomass Gasification 379
6.3.1 Reactor Design Types 380
6.3.2 Gas Utilisation and Quality Requirements 389
6.3.3 Gas Cleaning 391
6.3.4 Power Production Processes 398
6.4 Thermal Utilisation of Waste (Energy from Waste) 401
6.4.1 Historical Development of Energy from Waste
Systems (EfW) 405
6.4.2 Grate-Based Combustion Systems 408
6.4.3 Pyrolysis and Gasification Systems 418
6.4.4 Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF). 421
6.4.5 Sewage Sludge 423
6.4.6 Steam Boilers 424
6.4.7 Efficiency Increases in EfWPlants 425
6.4.8 Dioxins 434
6.4.9 Flue Gas Cleaning 435
6.5 Co-combustion in Coal-Fired Power Plants. 438
6.5.1 Co-combustion Design Concepts 440
6.5.2 Biomass Preparation and Feeding 442
6.5.3 Co-combustion in Pulverised Fuel Firing. 446
6.5.4 Co-combustion in Fluidised Bed Furnaces 458
References. 461

7 Coal-Fuelled Combined Cycle Power Plants 469
7.1 Natural Gas Fuelled Combined Cycle Processes 469
7.2 Overview of Combined Processes with Coal Combustion 474
7.2.1 Introduction 474
7.2.2 Hot Gas Purity Requirements 477
7.2.3 Overview of the Hot Gas Cleaning System for Coal
Combustion Combined Cycles 480
7.2.4 Effect of Pressure on Combustion481
7.3 Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion (PFBC) 483
7.3.1 Overview 483
7.3.2 Hot Gas Cleaning After the Pressurised Fluidised Bed 490
7.3.3 Pressurised Bubbling Fluidised Bed Combustion (PBFBC). . 498
7.3.4 Pressurised Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion (PCFBC). 507
7.3.5 Second-Generation Fluidised Bed Firing Systems (Hybrid Process) 514
7.3.6 Summary 517
7.4 Pressurised Pulverised Coal Combustion (PPCC) 518
7.4.1 Overview 518
7.4.2 Molten Slag Removal 520
7.4.3 Alkali Release and Capture 523
7.4.4 State of Development 538
7.4.5 Summary and Conclusions 545
7.5 Externally Fired Gas Turbine Processes 546
7.5.1 Structure, Configurations, Efficiency 546
7.5.2 High-Temperature Heat Exchanger 551
7.5.3 State of Development 561
7.5.4 Conclusions . 568
7.6 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC). 569
7.6.1 History of Coal Gasification. 569
7.6.2 Applications of Gasification Technology. 570
7.6.3 Gasification Systems and Chemical Reactions 576
7.6.4 Classification of Coal Gasifiers 585
7.6.5 Gas Treatment 593
7.6.6 Components and Integration. 608
7.6.7 State of the Art and Perspectives. 612
References 619

8 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) 629
8.1 Potential for Carbon Capture and Storage 629
8.2 Properties and Transport of CO2 630
8.3 CO2 Storage 632
8.3.1 Industrial Use 632
8.3.2 Geological Storage 633
8.4 Overview of Capture Technologies 637
8.4.1 Technology Overview 637
8.4.2 Separation Technologies 639
8.5 Post-combustion Technologies. 642
8.5.1 Chemical Absorption 642
8.5.2 Solid Sorbents . 646
8.6 Oxy-fuel Combustion . 647
8.6.1 Oxy-fuel Steam Generator Concepts 649
8.6.2 Impact of Oxy-fuel Combustion 651
8.6.3 Oxy-fuel Configurations . 656
8.6.4 Chemical-Looping Combustion 659
8.7 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycles with Carbon Capture and Storage 661
8.8 Comparison of CCS Technologies. 663
References 665
Index 669

Link :

http://www.ziddu.com/download/13060679/PowerFuels_2.rar.html

Engineering Mathematics Pocket Book

2010-12-16T19:24:00.000-08:00

E
Content
Number and algebra 1
1. Basic arithmetic 1
2. Revision of fractions, decimals and percentages 4
3. Indices and standard form 10
4. Errors, calculations and evaluation of formulae 14
5. Algebra 16
6. Simple equations 25
7. Simultaneous equations 29
8. Transposition of formulae 32
9. Quadratic equations 35
10. Inequalities 40
11. Logarithms 46
12. Exponential functions 49
13. Hyperbolic functions 55
14. Partial fractions 61
15. Number sequences 64
16. The binomial series 67
17. Maclaurin’s series 71
18. Solving equations by iterative methods 74
19. Computer numbering systems 80

Mensuration 86
20. Areas of plane figures 86
21. The circle and its properties 91
22. Volumes of common solids 95
23. Irregular areas and volumes and mean values 102

Geometry and trigonometry 109
24. Geometry and triangles 109
25. Introduction to trigonometry 115
26. Cartesian and polar co-ordinates 122
27. Triangles and some practical applications 125
28. Trigonometric waveforms 129
29. Trigonometric identities and equations 141
30. The relationship between trigonometric and hyperbolic functions 145
31. Compound angles 148

Graphs 155
32. Straight line graphs 155
33. Reduction of non-linear laws to linear form 160
34. Graphs with logarithmic scales 166
35. Graphical solution of equations 170
36. Polar curves 178
37. Functions and their curves 185

Vectors 199
38. Vectors 199
39. Combination of waveforms 207
40. Scalar and vector products 211

Complex numbers 219
41. Complex numbers 219
42. De Moivre’s theorem 226

Matrices and determinants 231
43. The theory of matrices and determinants 231
44. The solution of simultaneous equations by matrices and determinants 235

Boolean algebra and logic circuits 244
45. Boolean algebra 244
46. Logic circuits and gates 255

Differential calculus 264
47. Introduction to differentiation 264
48. Methods of differentiation 271
49. Some applications of differentiation 276
50. Differentiation of parametric equations 283
51. Differentiation of implicit functions 286
52. Logarithmic differentiation 288
53. Differentiation of inverse trigonometric and hyperbolic functions 290
54. Partial differentiation 294
55. Total differential, rates of change and small changes 297
56. Maxima, minima and saddle points of functions of two variables 299

Integral calculus 305
57. Introduction to integration 305
58. Integration using algebraic substitutions 308
59. Integration using trigonometric and hyperbolic substitutions 310
60. Integration using partial fractions 314
61. The t D tan substitution 316
62. Integration by parts 318
63. Reduction formulae 320
64. Numerical integration 326
65. Areas under and between curves 330
66. Mean and root mean square values 336
67. Volumes of solids of revolution 338
68. Centroids of simple shapes 340
69. Second moments of area of regular sections 346

Differential equations 353
70. Solution of first order differential equations by separation of variables 353
71. Homogeneous first order differential equations 357
72. Linear first order differential equations 358
73. Second order differential equations of the form a d2y dx2 C b dy dx C cy 360
74. Second order differential equations of the form
75. Numerical methods for first order differential equations 367

Statistics and probability 373
76. Presentation of statistical data 373
77. Measures of central tendency and dispersion 380
78. Probability 386
79. The binomial and Poisson distributions 389
80. The normal distribution 392
81. Linear correlation 398
82. Linear regression 400
83. Sampling and estimation theories 403

Laplace transforms 414
84. Introduction to Laplace transforms 414
85. Properties of Laplace transforms 416
86. Inverse Laplace transforms 419
87. The solution of differential equations using Laplace transforms 421
88. The solution of simultaneous differential equations using Laplace transforms 424

Fourier series 427
89. Fourier series for periodic functions of period 2 427
90. Fourier series for a non-periodic function over range 2 431
91. Even and odd functions and half-range Fourier series 433
92. Fourier series over any range 438
93. A numerical method of harmonic analysis 441
Index 448

Download

Lightning Protection

2010-11-16T18:57:00.000-08:00

Contents

List of contributors xxvii

Preface xxix

Acknowledgements xxxi

1 Benjamin Franklin and lightning rods 1

E. Philip Krider

1.1 A Philadelphia story 3

1.2 The French connection 5

1.3 Experiments in colonial America 6

1.4 First protection system 7

1.5 Improvements 9

1.6 ‘Snatching lightning from the sky’ 12

Acknowledgement 13

References 13

2 Lightning parameters of engineering interest 15

Vernon Cooray and Mahendra Fernando

2.1 Introduction 15

2.2 Electric fields generated by thunderclouds 19

2.3 Thunderstorm days and ground flash density 23

2.4 Number of strokes and time interval between strokes

in ground flashes25

2.4.1 Number of strokes per flash 28

2.4.2 Interstroke interval 30

2.5 Number of channel terminations in ground flashes 31

2.6 Occurrence of surface flash over 34

2.7 Lightning leaders 36

2.7.1 Speed of stepped leaders 36

2.7.2 Speed of dart leaders 37

2.7.3 Electric fields generated by stepped leaders 39

2.7.4 Electric fields generated by dart leaders 40

2.7.5 Speed of connecting leaders 44

2.7.6 Currents in connecting leaders 45

2.8 Current parameters of first and subsequent returnstrokes 47

2.8.1 Berger’s measurements 50

2.8.2 Garbagnati and Piparo’s measurements 51

2.8.3 Eriksson’s measurements 51

2.8.4 Analysis of Andersson and Eriksson 53

2.8.5 Measurements of Takami and Okabe 53

2.8.6 Measurements of Visacro and colleagues 54

2.8.7 Summary of current measurements 54

2.9 Statistical representation of lightning current parameters 55

2.9.1 Correlation between different current parameters57

2.9.2 Effect of tower height 60

2.9.3 Mathematical representation of current waveforms67

2.9.3.1 Current waveform recommended by the CIGRE study group67

2.9.3.2 Analytical form of the current used in the

International Electrotechnical

Commission standard 70

2.9.3.3 Analytical expression of Nucci and colleagues 71

2.9.3.4 Analytical expression of Diendorfer and Uman 71

2.9.3.5 Analytical expression of Delfino and colleagues72

2.9.3.6 Analytical expression of Cooray and colleagu72

2.9.4 Current wave shapes of upward-initiated flashes 72

2.10 Electric fields from first and subsequent strokes74

2.11 Peak electric radiation fields of first and subsequent strokes 81

2.12 Continuing currents 84

2.13 M-components 88

References 88

3 Rocket-triggered lightning and new insights into lightning

protection gained from triggered-lightning experiments97

V.A. Rakov

3.1 Introduction 97

3.2 Triggering techniques 98

3.2.1 Classical triggering 98

3.2.2 Altitude triggering 103

3.2.3 Triggering facility at Camp Blanding, Florida 105

3.3 Overall current waveforms 107

3.3.1 Classical triggering 107

3.3.2 Altitude triggering 109

3.4 Parameters of return-stroke current waveforms 110

3.5 Return-stroke current peak versus grounding conditions 122

3.6 Characterization of the close lightning electromagnetic environment128

3.7 Studies of interaction of lightning with various objects and systems131

3.7.1 Overhead power distribution lines 131

3.7.1.1 Nearby strikes 131

3.7.1.2 Direct strikes 135

3.7.2 Underground cables 143

3.7.3 Power transmission lines 143

3.7.4 Residential buildings 144

3.7.5 Airport runway lighting system 144

3.7.6 Miscellaneous experiments 149

3.8 Concluding remarks 150

References 150

Bibliography 159

4 Attachment of lightning flashes to grounded structures 165

Vernon Cooray and Marley Becerra

4.1 Introduction 165

4.1.1 The protection angle method 166

4.1.2 The electro-geometrical method 168

4.1.3 The rolling sphere method 170

4.1.4 The mesh method 175

4.2 Striking distance to flat ground 176

4.2.1 Golde 177

4.2.2 Eriksson 177

4.2.3 Dellera and Garbagnati 179

4.2.4 Cooray and colleagues 179

4.2.5 Armstrong and Whitehead 180

4.3 Striking distance to elevated structures 182

4.3.1 Positive leader discharges 183

4.3.2 Leader inception models 186

4.3.2.1 The critical radius concept 186

4.3.2.2 Rizk’s generalized leader inception equation 190

4.3.2.3 Critical streamer length concept 194

4.3.2.4 Bazelyan and Raizer’s empirical leader model 195

4.3.2.5 Lalande’s stabilization field equation 196

4.3.2.6 The self-consistent leader inception model of

Becerra and Cooray197

4.4 The leader progression model 212

4.4.1 The basic concept of the leader progression model 212

4.4.2 The leader progression model of Eriksson 212

4.4.3 The leader progression model of Dellera and

Garbagnati215

4.4.4 The leader progression model of Rizk 217

4.4.5 Attempts to validate the existing leader progression models 220

4.4.6 Critical overview of the assumptions of leader progression models223

4.4.6.1 Orientation of the stepped leader 223

4.4.6.2 Leader inception criterion 224

4.4.6.3 Parameters and propagation of the upward

connecting leader225

4.4.6.4 Effects of leader branches and tortuosity 226

4.4.6.5 Thundercloud electric field 226

4.4.7 Becerra and Cooray leader progression model 227

4.4.7.1 Basic theory 227

4.4.7.2 Self-consistent lightning interception model

(SLIM)231

4.5 Non-conventional lightning protection systems 239

4.5.1 The early streamer emission concept 240

4.5.1.1 Experimental evidence in conflict with the concept of ESE 241

4.5.1.2 Theoretical evidence in conflict with the concept of ESE 243

4.5.2 The concept of dissipation array systems (DAS) 251

4.5.2.1 Experimental evidence against dissipation arrays 253

5 Protection against lightning surges 269

Rajeev Thottappillil and Nelson Theethayi

5.1 Introduction 269

5.1.1 Direct strike to power lines 269

5.1.2 Lightning activity in the vicinity of networks 270

5.2 Characteristics of lightning transients and their

impact on systems 273

5.2.1 Parameters of lightning current important for

surge protection design 274

5.2.1.1 Peak current 274

5.2.1.2 Charge transferred 274

5.2.1.3 Prospective energy 275

5.2.1.4 Waveshape 276

5.2.2 Parameters of lightning electric and magnetic

fields important for surge protection design276

5.3 Philosophy of surge protection 278

5.3.1 Surge protection as part of achieving

electromagnetic compatibility 278

5.3.1.1 Conductor penetration through a shield 279

5.3.2 Principle of surge protection 280

5.3.2.1 Gas discharge tubes (spark gaps) 282

5.3.2.2 Varistors 285

5.3.2.3 Diodes and thyristors 286

5.3.2.4 Current limiters 288

5.3.2.5 Isolation devices 290

5.3.2.6 Filters 291

5.3.2.7 Special protection devices used in power distribution networks 293

5.4 Effects of parasitic elements in surge protection and filter components 294

5.4.1 Capacitors 295

5.4.2 Inductors 297

5.4.3 Resistors 298

5.4.3.1 Behaviour of resistors at various frequencies 299

5.5 Surge protection coordination 302

References 303

6 External lightning protection system 307

Christian Bouquegneau

6.1 Introduction 307

6.2 Air-termination system 308

6.2.1 Location of air-terminations on the structure 308

6.2.1.1 Positioning of the air-termination system utilizing the rolling sphere method310

6.2.1.2 Positioning of the air-termination system utilizing the mesh method311

6.2.1.3 Positioning of the air-termination system utilizing the protection angle method313

6.2.1.4 Comparison of methods for the positioning of the air-termination system316

6.2.2 Construction of air-termination systems 316

6.2.3 Non-conventional air-termination systems 320

6.3 Down-conductor system 320

6.3.1 Location and positioning of down-conductors on the structure 320

6.3.2 Construction of down-conductor systems 322

6.3.3 Structure with a cantilevered part 325

6.3.4 Joints, connections and test joints in down-conductors 326

6.3.5 Lightning equipotential bonding 328

6.3.6 Current distribution in down-conductors 330

6.4 Earth-termination system 330

6.4.1 General principles 330

6.4.2 Earthing arrangements in general conditions 332

6.4.3 Examples of earthing arrangements in common small structures 335

6.4.4 Special earthing arrangements 341

6.4.4.1 Earth electrodes in rocky and sandy soils 341

6.4.4.2 Earth-termination systems in large areas 341

6.4.4.3 Artificial decrease of earth resistance 342

6.4.5 Effect of soil ionization and breakdown 343

6.4.6 Touch voltages and step voltages 343

6.4.6.1 Touch voltages 343

6.4.6.2 Step voltages 344

6.4.8 Measurement of soil resistivity and earth resistances 345

6.4.8.1 Measurement of soil resistivity 345

6.4.8.2 Measurement of earth resistances 348

6.5 Selection of materials 348

Acknowledgements 352

References 353

7 Internal lightning protection system 355

Peter Hasse and Peter Zahlmann

7.1 Damage due to lightning and other surges 355

7.1.1 Damage in hazardous areas 357

7.1.2 Lightning damage in city areas 357

7.1.3 Damage to airports 360

7.1.4 Consequences of lightning damage 361

7.2 Protective measures 361

7.2.1 Internal lightning protection 363

7.2.1.1 Equipotential bonding in accordance with IEC 60364-4-41 and -5-54 363

7.2.1.2 Equipotential bonding for a low-voltage system 364

7.2.1.3 Equipotential bonding for information technology system 364

7.2.2 Lightning protection zones concept 365

7.2.3 Basic protection measures: earthing magnetic shielding and bonding 366

7.2.3.1 Magnetic shielding 366

7.2.3.2 Cable shielding 369

7.2.3.3 Equipotential bonding network 371

7.2.3.4 Equipotential bonding on the boundaries of lightning protection zones 373

7.2.3.5 Equipotential bonding at the boundary of LPZ 0A and LPZ 2 380

7.2.3.6 Equipotential bonding on the boundary of LPZ 1 and LPZ 2 and higher 383

7.2.3.7 Coordination of the protective measures at various LPZ boundaries 385

7.2.3.8 Inspection and maintenance of LEMP protection 388

7.3 Surge protection for power systems: power supply systems (within the scope of the lightning protection zones concept according to IEC 62305-4) 389

7.3.1 Technical characteristics of SPDs 391

7.3.1.1 Maximum continuous voltage UC 391

7.3.1.2 Impulse current Iimp 392

7.3.1.3 Nominal discharge current In 392

7.3.1.4 Voltage protection level Up 392

7.3.1.5 Short-circuit withstand capability 392

7.3.1.6 Follow current extinguishing capability at UC (Ifi) 392

7.3.1.7 Follow current limitation (for spark-gap based SPDs class I) 393

7.3.1.8 Coordination 393

7.3.1.9 Temporary overvoltage 393

7.3.2 Use of SPDs in various systems 393

7.3.3 Use of SPDs in TN systems 396

7.3.4 Use of SPDs in TT systems 398

7.3.5 Use of SPDs in IT systems 401

7.3.6 Rating the lengths of connecting leads for SPDs 401

7.3.6.1 Series connection (V-shape) in accordance with IEC 60364-5-53 402

7.3.6.2 Parallel connection system in accordance with

IEC 60364-5-53 403

7.3.6.3 Design of the connecting lead on the earth side 405

7.3.6.4 Design of the phase-side connecting cables 406

7.3.7 Rating of cross-sectional areas and backup protection of SPDs410

7.3.7.1 Selectivity to the protection of the installation 416

7.4 Surge protection for telecommunication systems 417

7.4.1 Procedure for selection and installation of arresters:example BLITZDUCTOR CT 417

7.4.1.1 Technical data 418

7.4.2 Measuring and control systems 421

7.4.2.1 Electrical isolation using optocouplers 422

7.5 Examples for application 423

7.5.1 Lightning and surge protection of wind turbines 423

7.5.1.1 Positive prognoses 424

7.5.1.2 Danger resulting from lightning effects 424

7.5.1.3 Frequency of lightning strokes 424

7.5.1.4 Standardization 425

7.5.1.5 Protection measures 425

7.5.1.6 Shielding measures 426

7.5.1.7 Earth-termination system 426

7.5.2 Lightning and surge protection for photovoltaic systems and solar power plants 428

7.5.2.1 Lightning and surge protection for photovoltaic systems428

7.5.2.2 Lightning and surge protection for solar power plants 434

7.5.3 Surge protection for video surveillance systems 438

7.5.3.1 Video surveillance systems 439

7.5.3.2 Choice of SPDs 439

Bibliography 441

8 Risk analysis 443

Z. Flisowski and C. Mazzetti

8.1 General considerations 443

8.2 General concept of risk due to lightning 445

8.3 Number of strikes to a selected location 447

8.4 Damage probabilities 452

8.5 Simplified practical approach to damage probability457

8.6 Question of relative loss assessment 458

8.7 Concept of risk components 459

8.8 Standardized procedure of risk assessment 461

8.8.1 Basic relations 461

8.8.2 Evaluation of risk components 464

8.8.3 Risk reduction criteria 468

8.9 Meaning of subsequent strokes in a flash 470

8.10 Final remarks and conclusions 471

References 472

9 Low-frequency grounding resistance and lightning protection 475

Silverio Visacro

9.1 Introduction 475

9.2 Basic considerations about grounding systems 475

9.3 The concept of grounding resistance 476

9.4 Grounding resistance of some simple electrode arrangements 479

9.5 Relation of the grounding resistance to the experimental response of electrodes to lightning currents482

9.6 Typical arrangements of grounding electrodes for some relevant applications and their lightning-protection-related requirements487

9.6.1 Transmission lines 487

9.6.2 Substations 490

9.6.3 Lightning protection systems 494

9.6.4 Overhead distribution lines 496

9.7 Conclusion 497

References 499

10 High-frequency grounding 503

Leonid Grcev

10.1 Introduction 503

10.2 Basic circuit concepts 503

10.3 Basic field considerations 506

10.4 Frequency-dependent characteristics of the soil 509

10.5 Grounding modelling for high frequencies 511

10.6 Frequency-dependent grounding behaviour 514

10.7 Frequency-dependent dynamic grounding behaviour 521

10.8 Relation between frequency-dependent and non-linear

grounding behaviour 526

References 527

11 Soil ionization 531

Vernon Cooray

11.1 Introduction 531

11.2 Critical electric field necessary for ionization in soil 534

11.3 Various models used in describing soil ionization 536

11.3.1 Ionized region as a perfect conductor 536

11.3.2 Model of Liew and Darveniza 537

11.3.2.1 Application of the model to a single driven rod 538

11.3.3 Model of Wang and colleagues 540

11.3.4 Model of Sekioka and colleagues 543

11.3.5 Model of Cooray and colleagues 545

11.3.5.1 Mathematical description 546

11.3.5.2 Model parameters 548

11.4 Conclusions 550

References 550

12 Lightning protection of low-voltage networks 553

Alexandre Piantini

12.1 Introduction 553

12.2 Low-voltage networks 554

12.2.1 Typical configurations and earthing practices 554

12.2.2 Distribution transformers 558

12.2.3 Low-voltage power installations 564

12.3 Lightning surges on low-voltage systems 568

12.3.1 Direct strikes 568

12.3.2 Cloud discharges 570

12.3.3 Indirect strikes 571

12.3.3.1 Calculation of lightning-induced voltages 573

12.3.3.2 Sensitivity analysis 578

12.3.4 Transference from the medium-voltage line 601

12.3.4.1 Direct strikes 601

12.3.4.2 Indirect strikes 605

12.4 Lightning protection of LV networks 611

12.4.1 Distribution transformers 612

12.4.2 Low-voltage power installations 614

12.5 Concluding remarks 624

References

13 Lightning protection of medium voltage lines 635

C.A. Nucci and F. Rachidi

13.1 Introduction 635

13.2 Lightning strike incidence to distribution lines 636

13.2.1 Expected number of direct lightning strikes 638

13.2.2 Shielding by nearby objects 639

13.3 Typical overvoltages generated by direct and indirect lightning strikes 640

13.3.1 Direct overvoltages 640

13.3.2 Induced overvoltages 642

13.4 Main principles in lightning protection of distribution lines 645

13.4.1 Basic impulse insulation level and critical impulse flashover voltage 646

13.4.2 Shield wires 648

13.4.3 Protective devices 650

13.4.3.1 General considerations using protective devices 650

13.4.3.2 Spark gaps 651

13.4.3.3 Surge arresters 652

13.4.3.4 Capacitors 653

13.5 Lightning protection of distribution systems 653

13.5.1 Effect of the shield wire 653

13.5.2 Effect of surge arresters 655

13.5.3 Lightning performance of MV distribution lines 660

13.5.3.1 Effect of soil resistivity 662

13.5.3.2 Effect of the presence of shield wires 662

13.5.3.3 Effect of the presence of surge arresters 666

Appendix A13 Procedure to calculate the lightning

performance of

distribution lines according to IEEE Std. 1410-2004 (from Reference 4)666

Appendix B13 The LIOV-Monte Carlo (LIOV–MC) procedure to calculate the lightning performance of distribution lines (from Reference 56)668

Appendix C13 The LIOV code: models and equations 670

C13.1 Agrawal and colleagues field-to-transmission line coupling equations extended to the case of

multiconductor lines above a lossy earth 671

C13.2 Lightning-induced voltages on distribution networks: LIOV code interfaced

with EMTPrv 675

Acknowledgements 675

References 675

xvi Contents

14 Lightning protection of wind turbines 681

Troels Soerensen

14.1 Introduction 681

14.2 Nature of the lightning threat to wind turbines 686

14.3 Statistics of lightning damage to wind turbines 687

14.4 Risk assessment and cost–benefit evaluation 688

14.5 Lightning protection zoning concept 691

14.6 Earthing and equipotential bonding 693

14.7 Protection of wind turbine components 695

14.7.1 Blades 695

14.7.1.1 Blades with carbon fibre 699

14.7.1.2 Guidelines, quality assurance and test methods700

14.7.2 Hub 702

14.7.3 Nacelle 703

14.7.4 Tower 703

14.7.5 Bearings and gears 704

14.7.6 Hydraulic systems 705

14.7.7 Electrical systems, control and communication systems 706

14.7.7.1 Electrical systems 707

14.7.7.2 Generator circuit 707

14.7.7.3 Medium-voltage system 709

14.7.7.4 Auxiliary power circuit(s) 709

14.7.7.5 Control and communication systems 711

14.8 Wind farm considerations 713

14.9 Off-shore wind turbines 714

14.10 Lightning sensors and registration methods 716

14.11 Construction phase and personnel safety 717

References 718

15 Lightning protection of telecommunication towers 723

G.B. Lo Piparo

15.1 Lightning as a source of damage to broadcasting stations 723

15.1.1 General 723

15.1.2 Injury to people 725

15.1.3 Physical damage 725

15.1.3.1 Thermal effects 725

15.1.3.2 Electrodynamic effects 726

15.1.4 Failure of internal electrical and electronic systems 726

15.2 Effects of lightning flashes to the broadcasting station 726

15.2.1 Effects of lightning flashes to the antenna support structure 726

15.2.1.1 Lightning current flowing through external conductive parts and lines connected to the station 729

15.2.1.2 Potential differences between different parts of the earth-termination system of the station 730

15.3 Lightning flashes affecting the power supply system 731

15.3.1 Power supply by overhead lines 731

15.3.1.1 Lightning flashes to an overhead line 731

15.3.1.2 Lightning flash to ground near an overhead line733

15.3.1.3 Surges at the point of entry of an overhead line in the station 733

15.3.1.4 Overhead line connected directly to the transformer 734

15.3.1.5 Buried cable connection between the overhead line and the transformer734

15.3.2 Power supply by underground cable 735

15.3.3 Transfer of overvoltages across the transformer735

15.4 The basic principles of lightning protection 736

15.4.1 The protection level to be provided 736

15.4.2 Basic criteria for protection of stations 737

15.4.3 Protection measures 738

15.4.4 Procedure for selection of protection measures739

15.4.5 Implementation of protection measures 739

15.5 Erection of protection measures to reduce injury of living beings 742

15.5.1 Protection measures against step voltages 742

15.5.2 Protection measures against touch-voltages 742

15.6 Erection of the LPS to reduce physical damage 743

15.6.1 Air-termination system 743

15.6.2 Down-conductors system 743

15.6.3 Earth-termination system 745

15.6.3.1 Earth-termination system for stations with an autonomous power supply 747

15.6.3.2 Earth-termination system for stations powered by an external source 749

15.6.4 Protection against corrosion 753

15.6.5 Earthing improvement 753

15.6.6 Foundation earth electrode 754

15.7 Potential equalization to reduce failures of electrical and electronic systems757

15.7.1 Potential equalization for the earth-termination system of the station 757

15.7.2 Potential equalization for the antenna support structure 761

15.7.3 Potential equalization for the equipment within the building 761

15.7.4 Potential equalization for metallic objects outside the building 763

15.8 Screening to reduce failures of electrical and electronic systems 763

15.8.1 Screening of circuits within the building 763

15.8.2 Circuits of the station entering the building 764

15.9 Coordinated SPD protection system to reduce failures of electrical and electronic systems 766

15.9.1 Selection of SPDs with regard to voltage protection level 766

15.9.2 Selection of SPD with regard to location and to discharge current766

15.9.3 Installation of SPDs in a coordinated SPD protection system 767

15.9.3.1 Protective distance lP 767

15.9.3.2 Induction protective distance lPi 768

15.10 Protection of lines and services entering the station 768

15.10.1 Overhead lines 769

15.10.2 Screened cables 770

15.11 Arrangement of power supply circuits 771

15.11.1 Stations supplied at high voltage 771

15.11.2 Stations supplied at low voltage 773

15.11.3 Stations with self-contained power supplies only 776

Annex A15: Surge testing of installations 776

A15.1 Simulation of surge phenomena 776

A15.1.1 General 776

A15.1.2 Tests for determining overvoltages due to lightning flashes to the antenna-support structure 777

A15.1.3 Determination of the transferred overvoltages 777

A15.1.4 Results 778

A15.2 Description of a typical test programme 779

A15.2.1 Introduction 779

A15.2.2 The power supply arrangements of the station 780

A15.2.3 The test equipment 781

A15.2.4 The test procedure and results 781

A15.2.4.1 Measurement of the overvoltages due to

lightning flashes to the antenna-support structure 783

A15.2.4.2 Measurement of the transferred overvoltages783

A15.3 Discussion of the results 784

A15.3.1 Lightning flashes to the antenna-supportstructure 786

A15.3.2 Overvoltages transferred by the power supply line 786

A15.4 Conclusions 787

Acknowledgements 787

References 787

16 Lightning protection of satellite launch pads 789

Udaya Kumar

16.1 Introduction 789

16.2 Structure of a rocket 790

16.3 Launch pad 791

16.3.1 Launch campaign and duration of exposure 792

16.4 Lightning threat to launch vehicle 792

16.4.1 Limitations of present-day knowledge in quantifying the risk793

16.5 Lightning protection systems 794

16.5.1 External protection 794

16.5.1.1 Brief description of some of the present protection schemes 796

16.5.2 Principles used for the design of the external protection system 798

16.5.2.1 Air termination network 798

16.5.2.2 Earth termination 799

16.5.2.3 Down-conductor system 799

16.5.3 Internal protection 799

16.5.3.1 Launch vehicle 799

16.5.3.2 Vehicle on launch pad 801

16.6 Weather launch commit criteria 802

16.7 Review of present status and suggested direction for further work 803

16.7.1 Attachment process 803

16.7.2 Lightning surge response 806

16.7.2.1 Earth termination 806

16.7.2.2 Down-conductor system 807

16.7.3 Weather launch commit criteria 813

16.8 Indirect effects 813

16.9 Protection of other supporting systems 814

16.10 On-site measurements 814

16.11 Summary 815

References 816

17 Lightning protection of structures with risk of fire and explosion 821 Arturo Galva´n Diego

17.1 Introduction 821

17.2 Tanks and vessels containing flammable materials 822

17.2.1 General 822

17.2.2 Risk assessment 824

17.2.3 Lightning protection measures 825

17.2.3.1 Air terminations 826

17.2.3.2 Equipotential bonding 828

17.2.3.3 A clean environment 829

17.2.3.4 Self-protecting system 829

17.2.3.5 Resume´ for lightning protection 830

17.3 Offshore oil platforms 830

17.3.1 General 830

17.3.2 Relevant standards 831

17.3.3 Risk assessment 832

17.3.4 Lightning protection measures 832

17.3.4.1 External lightning protection 832

17.3.4.2 Grounding system and common bonding network 834

17.3.4.3 Internal grounding system 835

17.3.4.4 Shielding 838

17.3.4.5 Location of SPD 839

References 839

18 Lightning and trees 843

Mahendra Fernando, Jakke Ma¨kela¨ and Vernon Cooray

18.1 Introduction 843

18.2 Strike and damage probability of lightning to trees

844

18.3 Types of lightning damage 846

18.3.1 Microscale damage 846

18.3.2 Macroscale damage 847

18.3.2.1 No physical damage 847

18.3.2.2 Bark-loss damage 849

18.3.2.3 Wood-loss damage 849

18.3.2.4 Explosive damage 849

18.3.2.5 Ignition 850

18.3.3 Other damage scenarios 852

18.3.3.1 Long-term propagation of damage 853

18.3.3.2 Group damage to trees 853

18.3.3.3 Damage to ground 853

18.3.3.4 Damage to vegetation 854

18.4 Protection of trees 854

18.5 Conclusions 855

Acknowledgements 855

References 855

19 Lightning warning systems 859

Martin J. Murphy, Kenneth L. Cummins and Ronald L. Holle

19.1 Introduction 859

19.2 Thunderstorm lifecycle and associated detection methods 860

19.2.1 Thunderstorm life cycle 860

19.2.1.1 Convective development and electrification 860

19.2.1.2 Early stages of lightning activity 861

19.2.1.3 Late stages of lightning activity 861

19.2.2 Associated detection methods 862

19.2.2.1 Detection of initial electrification 862

19.2.2.2 Single-point lightning detection sensors 863

19.2.2.3 Lightning detection networks 864

19.3 Examples of warning systems 864

19.3.1 Fixed-point warning applications 864

19.3.2 Storm-following algorithms 867

19.4 Warning system performance measures 869

19.4.1 Performance metrics 869

19.4.1.1 Performance metrics for fixed-point algorithms 870

19.4.1.2 Performance metrics for storm-following algorithms 873

19.4.2 Specific challenges at different stages of the warning problem 875

19.4.2.1 Lightning onset 875

19.4.2.2 Lightning cessation 876

19.5 Application of performance measures to cloud-to-ground warning systems879

19.5.1 Assessment of a fixed-point warning algorithm 879

19.5.1.1 Effects of lightning detection technology 879

19.5.1.2 Effects of algorithm configuration using a single detection technology 884

19.5.2 Lightning cessation in MCS cases 884

19.5.3 Radar applications for lightning onset in storm-following algorithms885

19.6 Assessing the risks 887

19.6.1 Decision making 887

19.6.2 Equipment protection application 891

9.6.3 Trade-offs between performance and risks for cloud-to-ground warning in safety applications 892

19.6.3.1 Personal and small-group warning 892

19.6.3.2 Large venue warning 893

References 894

20 Lightning-caused injuries in humans 901

Vernon Cooray, Charith Cooray and Christopher Andrews

20.1 Introduction 901

20.2 The different ways in which lightning can interact with humans 902

20.3 Different types of injuries 906

20.3.1 Injuries to the respiratory and cardiovascular system 906

20.3.2 Injuries to the eye 909

20.3.3 Ear 910

20.3.4 Nervous system 912

20.3.5 Skin and burn injuries 913

20.3.6 Psychological 914

20.3.7 Blunt injuries 914

20.3.8 Disability caused by lightning 915

20.3.9 Remote injuries 915

20.3.10 Lightning electromagnetic fields 917

20.4 Concluding remarks 920

References 920

21 Lightning standards 925

Fridolin Heidler and E.U. Landers

21.1 Introduction 925

21.2 Standardized lightning currents 926

21.2.1 Threat parameters of the lightning current 926

21.2.2 Current waveforms 928

21.2.3 Requirements for the current tests 930

21.3 Determination of possible striking points 931

21.3.1 Rolling sphere method 931

21.3.2 Mesh method 933

21.3.3 Protection angle method 933

21.4 The lightning protection system (LPS) 934

21.4.1 Air termination system 934

21.4.2 Down-conductor system 935

21.4.3 Earth termination system 935

21.4.4 Lightning equipotential bonding 937

21.4.5 Separation distance 938

21.5 The LEMP protection measures system (LPMS) 939

21.5.1 The lightning protection zones (LPZ) concept 939

21.5.2 Earthing system and bonding network 941

21.5.3 Line routing and shielding 942

21.5.4 Coordinated surge protection device application 942

21.5.5 Spatial magnetic shielding 942

21.6 Conclusions 944

References 946

22 High-voltage and high-current testing 947

Wolfgang Zischank

22.1 Introduction 947

22.2 Lightning test equipment 948

22.2.1 High-voltage impulse test generators 948

22.2.1.1 Single-stage impulse voltage circuits 950

22.2.1.2 Multistage impulse voltage circuits 953

22.2.2 High-current test generators 956

22.2.2.1 Simulation of first return stroke effects 957

22.2.2.2 Simulation of subsequent return stroke effects 967

22.2.2.3 Generation of long-duration currents 970

22.2.2.4 Current injection for direct effects testing 971

22.2.3 Indirect effects testing 972

22.3 Measurement techniques 974

22.3.1 Measurement of impulse voltages 974

22.3.2 Measurement of impulse currents 975

22.3.2.1 Resistive shunts 975

22.3.2.2 Rogowski coils 976

22.3.2.3 Current monitors 977

References 978

23 Return stroke models for engineering applications 981

Vernon Cooray

23.1 Introduction 981

23.2 Current propagation models (CP models) 983

23.2.1 Basic concept 983

23.2.2 Most general description 984

23.3 Current generation models (CG models) 986

23.3.1 Basic concept 986

23.3.2 Mathematical background 988

23.3.2.1 Evaluate Ib(t) given r(z), t(z) and v(z) 988

23.3.2.2 Evaluate t(z) given Ib(t), r(z) and v(z) 989

23.3.2.3 Evaluate r(z) given Ib(t), t(z) and v(z) 990

23.3.2.4 Evaluate v(z), given Ib(t), r(z) and t(z) 990

23.3.3 CG models in practice 990

23.3.3.1 Model of Wagner 991

23.3.3.2 Model of Heidler 991

23.3.3.3 Model of Hubert 992

23.3.3.4 Model of Cooray 993

23.3.3.5 Model of Diendofer and Uman 994

23.3.3.6 First modification of the Diendofer and Uman model by Thottappillil et al.996

23.3.3.7 Second modification of the Diendofer and Uman model by Thottappillil and Uman997

23.3.3.8 Model of Cooray 998

23.3.3.9 Model of Cooray and Rakov 999

23.3.3.10 Model of Cooray, Rakov and Montano 1000

23.4 Current dissipation models (CD Models) 1001

23.4.1 General description 1001

23.4.2 Mathematical background 1003

23.4.3 Cooray and Rakov model – a combination of current dissipation and current generation models 1004

23.5 Generalization of any model to the current generation type 1006

23.6 Generalization of any model to the current dissipation type 1008

23.7 Current dissipation models and the modified transmission line models 1009

23.8 Effect of ground conductivity 1010

23.9 Equations necessary to calculate the electric and magnetic fields 1012

23.10 Concluding remarks 1015

References 1016

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Handbook of Reactive Chemical Hazards

2010-10-23T09:01:00.000-07:00

Preface to the Seventh Edition
It is a regret, to the Editor, his assistants, and surely to readers, that Leslie Bretherick died in April 2003 after a short period of overt illness. This work is his major memorial. The measure of how well he wrought is that, in this third edition after his declining sight caused him to hand over the reins, he is still responsible for the initial selection of more than 70% of compound and group entries, however much these may subsequently have been augmented. Only three ‘new’ compounds have entered this edition on hazard reports from literature which he might have found, but did not, in the days before computers, keywords and hazard warnings in bold or italic, made winnowing the literature as easy as it is today.

The general lines and layout of his maximum opus remain little changed. There is a proliferating literature of what is best described as theoretical chemical safety. Leslie Bretherick initially tried to cover all of this but, well before his death, we agreed that Bretherick should concentrate upon the unfortunate incidents that actually occurred, using, we hoped, well-chosen words. Even here, some selection is involved; azides and organic or organometallic perchlorates only gain individual entries if they are either exceptionally sensitive, or advanced as synthetic reagents. Neither do novel compounds proposed as explosives automatically gain entry; they usually have the characteristics of two or more group entries. The theoretical side is not ignored but selectively, and not exhaustively, covered.

The manufacturer’s safety data sheets now supplied alongside chemicals, even by laboratory supply houses, are steadily improving and so render reference to published compound safety datasheet compilations otiose. Since many of the recent latter appear to result from cut and paste by uncritical Information Technology specialists, lacking hands-on experience of the chemicals involved, that is perhaps as well.

Internal reorganisation within Reed International means that the Handbook is now published by Elsevier, not Butterworth Heinemann. Thanks are therefore due to the staff of both organisations. Dr Martin Pitt of the University of Sheffield ably assists me in the more purely chemical engineering matters and also in surfing the Internet, whence my criteria for inclusion remain two of these three: I find the report credible, the source is authoritative and the hazard is not already listed. The libraries of the universities of Durham, Edinburgh, and Warwick have helped me to study sources, and thanks are due to my erstwhile employer, become part of Akzo Nobel, for continuing to allow me occasional days off to undertake the work.

The computerised systems of compilation and structure drawing have been changed and I hope that this has not introduced too many unfound flaws and errors. For these, as others, I must take responsibility and I hope that readers will be unsparing in pointing them out. But, reader, the ultimate responsibility for your safety remains with you: study, think, and experiment with caution while doubt remains. And, should you thus find new hazard, please report it.

P. G. URBEN

2682 pages 7.2 Mb

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Electronic Circuits,Fundamental and Applications

2010-09-19T22:17:00.000-07:00

Content :
1. Electrical fundamentals
2. Passive components
3. D.C. circuits
4. Alternating voltage and current
5. Semiconductore
6. Power Supplies
7. Amplifiers
8. Operational amplifiers
9. Oscilators
10. Logic circuits

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ELEMENTARY MECHANICS & THERMODYNAMICS

2010-08-10T08:18:00.000-07:00

Contents
1 MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE 11
1.1 Motion
1.2 Position and Displacement
1.3 Average Velocity and Average Speed
1.4 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed
1.5 Acceleration
1.6 Constant Acceleration: A Special Case
1.7 Another Look at Constant Acceleration
1.8 Free-Fall Acceleration
1.9 Problems

2 VECTORS 31
2.1 Vectors and Scalars
2.2 Adding Vectors: Graphical Method
2.3 Vectors and Their Components
2.3.1 Review of Trigonometry
2.3.2 Components of Vectors
2.4 Unit Vectors
2.5 Adding Vectors by Components
2.6 Vectors and the Laws of Physics
2.7 Multiplying Vectors
2.7.1 The Scalar Product (often called dot product)
2.7.2 The Vector Product
2.8 Problems

3 MOTION IN 2 & 3 DIMENSIONS 47
3.1 Moving in Two or Three Dimensions
3.2 Position and Displacement
3.3 Velocity and Average Velocity

4 CONTENTS
3.4 Acceleration and Average Acceleration
3.5 Projectile Motion
3.6 Projectile Motion Analyzed
3.7 Uniform Circular Motion
3.8 Problems

4 FORCE & MOTION - I 65
4.1 What Causes an Acceleration?
4.2 Newton's First Law
4.3 Force
4.4 Mass
4.5 Newton's Second Law
4.6 Some Particular Forces
4.7 Newton's Third Law
4.8 Applying Newton's Laws
4.9 Problems

5 FORCE & MOTION - II 79
5.1 Friction
5.2 Properties of Friction
5.3 Drag Force and Terminal Speed
5.4 Uniform Circular Motion
5.5 Problems

6 POTENTIAL ENERGY & CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 89
6.1 Work
6.2 Kinetic Energy
6.3 Work-Energy Theorem
6.4 Gravitational Potential Energy
6.5 Conservation of Energy
6.6 Spring Potential Energy
6.7 Appendix: alternative method to obtain potential energy
6.8 Problems

7 SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES 107
7.1 A Special Point
7.2 The Center of Mass
7.3 Newton's Second Law for a System of Particles
7.4 Linear Momentum of a Point Particle
7.5 Linear Momentum of a System of Particles
7.6 Conservation of Linear Momentum
7.7 Problems

8 COLLISIONS 119
8.1 What is a Collision?
8.2 Impulse and Linear Momentum
8.3 Elastic Collisions in 1-dimension
8.4 Inelastic Collisions in 1-dimension
8.5 Collisions in 2-dimensions
8.6 Reactions and Decay Processes
8.7 Problems

9 ROTATION 131
9.1 Translation and Rotation
9.2 The Rotational Variables
9.3 Are Angular Quantities Vectors?
9.4 Rotation with Constant Angular Acceleration
9.5 Relating the Linear and Angular Variables
9.6 Kinetic Energy of Rotation
9.7 Calculating the Rotational Inertia
9.8 Torque
9.9 Newton's Second Law for Rotation
9.10 Work and Rotational Kinetic Energy
9.11 Problems
10 ROLLING, TORQUE & ANGULAR MOMENTUM 145
10.1 Rolling
10.2 Yo-Yo
10.3 Torque Revisited
10.4 Angular Momentum
10.5 Newton's Second Law in Angular Form
10.6 Angular Momentum of a System of Particles
10.7 Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body Rotating About a Fixed Axis
10.8 Conservation of Angular Momentum
10.9 Problems

11 GRAVITATION 153
11.1 The World and the Gravitational Force
11.2 Newton's Law of Gravitation
11.3 Gravitation and Principle of Superposition
11.4 Gravitation Near Earth's Surface
11.5 Gravitation Inside Earth
11.6 Gravitational Potential Energy
11.7 Kepler's Laws
11.8 Problems

12 OSCILLATIONS 175
12.1 Oscillations
12.2 Simple Harmonic Motion
12.3 Force Law for SHM
12.4 Energy in SHM
12.5 An Angular Simple Harmonic Oscillator
12.6 Pendulum
12.7 Problems

13 WAVES - I 191
13.1 Waves and Particles
13.2 Types of Waves
13.3 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
13.4 Wavelength and Frequency
13.5 Speed of a Travelling Wave
13.6 Wave Speed on a String
13.7 Energy and Power of a Travelling String Wave
13.8 Principle of Superposition
13.9 Interference of Waves
13.10 Phasors
13.11 Standing Waves
13.12 Standing Waves and Resonance
13.13Problems

14 WAVES - II 201
14.1 Sound Waves
14.2 Speed of Sound
14.3 Travelling Sound Waves
14.4 Interference
14.5 Intensity and Sound Level
14.6 Sources of Musical Sound
14.7 Beats
14.8 Doppler E®ect
14.9 Problems

15 TEMPERATURE, HEAT & 1ST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
15.1 Thermodynamics
15.2 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
15.3 Measuring Temperature
15.4 Celsius, Farenheit and Kelvin Temperature Scales
15.5 Thermal Expansion
15.6 Temperature and Heat
15.7 The Absorption of Heat by Solids and Liquids
15.8 A Closer Look at Heat and Work
15.9 The First Law of Thermodynamics
15.10 Special Cases of 1st Law of Thermodynamics
15.11 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
15.12Problems

16 KINETIC THEORY OF GASES 225
16.1 A New Way to Look at Gases
16.2 Avagadro's Number
16.3 Ideal Gases
16.4 Pressure, Temperature and RMS Speed
16.5 Translational Kinetic Energy
16.6 Mean Free Path
16.7 Distribution of Molecular Speeds
16.8 Problems

17 Review of Calculus 235
17.1 Derivative Equals Slope
17.1.1 Slope of a Straight Line
17.1.2 Slope of a Curve
17.1.3 Some Common Derivatives
17.1.4 Extremum Value of a Function
17.2 Integral
17.2.1 Integral Equals Antiderivative
17.2.2 Integral Equals Area Under Curve
17.2.3 De¯nite and Inde¯nite Integrals
17.3 Problems

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Physical Inorganic Chemistry,Reactions,Processes and Applications

2010-07-20T01:20:00.000-07:00

Content :
1.Electron Transfer Reactions
2.Proton-Coupled Electron Transfer in Hydrogen and Hydride Transfer Reactions
3.Oxygen Atom Transfer
4.Mechanisms of Oxygen Binding and Activation
5.Activation of Molecular Hydrogen
6.Activation of Carbon Dioxide
7.Chemistry of Bound Nitrogen Monoxide and Related Redox Species
8.Lig and Substitution Dynamics in Metal Complexes
9.Reactivity of Inorganic Radicals in Aqueous Solution
10.Organometallic Radicals :Thermodynamics,Kinetics,and Reaction Mechanisms
11.Metal-Mediated Carbon Hydrogen Bond Activation
12.Solar Photo chemistry with Transition Metal Compounds Anchored to Semiconductor Surfaces

620 pages 8 Mb
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Mechanical Engineers Data Handbook

2010-06-25T06:20:00.000-07:00

Symbols used in text

1. Strength of materials

1.1 Types of stress

1.2 Strength of fasteners

1.3 Fatigue and stress concentration

1.4 Bending of beams

1.5 Springs

1.6 Shafts

1.7 Struts

1.8 Cylinders and hollow spheres

1.9 Contact stress

1.10 Flat plates

2. Appli mechanics

2.1 Basic mechanics

2.2 Belt drives

2.3 Balancing

2.4 Miscellaneous machine elements

2.5 Automobile mechanics

2.6 Vibrations

2.7 Friction

2.8 Brakes, clutches and dynamometers

2.9 Bearings

2.10 Gears

3. Termodyanmics and heat transfer

3.1 Heat

3.2 Perfect gases

3.3 Vapours

3.4 Data tables

3.5 Flow through nozzles

3.6 Steam plant

3.7 Steam turbines

3.8 Gas turbines

3.9 Heat engine cycles

3.10 Reciprocating spark ignition internal combustion engines

3.1 1 Air compressors

3.12 Reciprocating air motor

3.13 Refrigerators

3.14 Heat transfer

3.15 Heat exchangers

3.16 Combustion of fuels

4. Fluid mechanics

4.1 Hydrostatics

4.2 Flow of liquids in pipes and ducts

4.3 Flow of liquids through various devices

4.4 Viscosity and laminar flow

4.5 Fluid jets

4.6 Flow of gases

4.7 Fluid machines

5. Manufacturing technology

5.1 General characteristics of metal processes

5.2 Turning

5.3 Drilling and reaming

5.4 Milling

5.5 Grinding

5.6 Cutting-tool materials

5.7 General information on metal cutting

5.8 Casting

5.9 Metal forming processes

5.10 Soldering and brazing

5.1 1 Gas welding

5.12 Arc welding

5.13 Limits and fits

6. Engineering materials

6.1 Cast irons

6.2 Carbon steels

6.3 Alloy steels

6.4 Stainless steels

6.5 British Standard specification of steels

6.6 Non-ferrous metals

6.7 Miscellaneous metals

6.8 Spring materials

6.9 Powdered metals

6.10 Low-melting-point alloys

6.11 Miscellaneous information on metals

6.12 Corrosion of metals

6.13 Plastics

6.14 Elastomers

6.15 Wood

6.16 Adhesives

6.17 Composites

6.18 Ceramics

6.19 Cermets

6.20 Materials for special requirements

6.21 Miscellaneous information

7. Engineering measurements

7.1 Length measurement

7.2 Angle measurement

7.3 Strain measurement

7.4 Temperature measurement

7.5 Pressure measurement

7.6 Flow measurement

7.7 Velocity measurement

7.8 Rotational-speed measurement

7.9 Materials-testing measurements

8. General data

8.1 Units and symbols

8.2 Fasteners

8.3 Engineering stock

8.4 Miscellaneous data

Glossary of terms

Index

354 pages 11 Mb

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Electrical Engineering Problem & Solution

2010-06-18T06:02:00.000-07:00

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Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

2010-06-16T06:02:00.000-07:00

994 pages 5.2 Mb

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Technologies for Electrical Power Conversion Efficiency and Distribution

2010-06-09T16:37:00.000-07:00

Section 1 Energy, Conversion and Storage of Energy

Chapter 1 Energy and Energy Efficiency
Energy Sources 1
Energy Efficiency and Contemporary Trends 6
References 9

Chapter 2 Storage and Usage of Energy 10
Overview 10
Storage of Energy as Electrochemical Energy 11
Storage of Energy as Electromagnetic Energy 21
Storage of Energy as Electrostatic Energy 24
Storage of Energy as Mechanical Energy 26
Using the Energy as Electrical Energy 30
References 30

Chapter 3 Power Electronics and Its Role in Effective Conversion of Electrical Energy
Overview 32
Principles of Conversion of Electrical Energy 36
Computer-Aided Design of Power Electronic Converters in Power Electronics 41
References 47
End notes 58

Section 2 Electronic Energy Converters
Chapter 4 AC/DC Conversion 50
Basic Indicators in Respect to the Supply Network 50
Single-Phase and Three-Phase Uncontrolled Rectifiers 55
Single-Phase and Three-Phase Controlled Rectifiers 66
Bidirectional AC/DC Conversion 77
Methods to Improve Power Efficiency in AC/DC Conversion 83
References 96

Chapter 5 AC/AC Conversion 98
Basic Indicators in Respect to the Supply Network 98
Single-Phase and Three-Phase AC Regulators 199
Methods to Improve Power Efficiency in AC/AC Conversion 114
References 133

Chapter 6 DC/DC Conversion 134
Basic Indicators 134
Conversion Without Galvanic Isolation 135
Conversion with Galvanic Isolation 143
Bidirectional DC/DC Conversion 155
Methods to Improve Power Efficiency in DC/DC Conversion 157
References 165
Endnote 166

Chapter 7 DC/AC Conversion 167
Basic Indicators 167
Single-Phase and Three-Phase Converters 169
Methods to Improve Power Efficiency in DC/AC Conversion 201
References 205
Endnote 206

Section 3 Applications of Electronic Energy Converters
Chapter 8 Conversion of Electrical Energy in the Processes of Its Generation and Transmission 208
Conversion in the Process of Electrical Generation 208
Static VAR Compensators (SVC) 211
Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) 211
Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator (TCSC) 213
Static Synchronous Series Controller (SSSC) 214
Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) 214
Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC) 215
High Voltage DC Transmission 227
References 229

Chapter 9 Conversion of Electrical Power from Renewable Energy Sources 231
Overview 231
Conversion of Solar Energy 233
Conversion of Wind Energy 239
Conversion of Water Energy 245
References 246

Chapter 10 Uninterruptible Power Supply Systems 248
Introduction 248
Basic Schemas and Their Indicators 254
Methods to Increase the Reliability 262
Communication between UPS Systems and Different Systems 267
References 268
Endnotes 269

Chapter 11 Other Applications of Converters and Systems of Converters 270
Industrial Applications 270
Transport Applications 280
Home Appliances 286
Elevators 293
Applications in Communication 293
Medical Applications 295
References 298

Chapter 12 State-of-the-Art Review on Power Electronics 300
Contemporary Study in the Field of Components for Power Electronics 301
Contemporary Study in the Field of Circuits for Power Electronic Converters 303
Contemporary Study in the Field of Systems of Power Electronic Converters 307
Contemporary Study in the Field of the Control Systems of Power Electronic Converters 309
Contemporary Study in the Field of Computer Simulation of Power Electronic Converters 310
References 311

Total 348 Pages 6 Mb
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Distillation Design

2010-06-05T08:01:00.000-07:00

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Mechanical Engineering Systems

2010-05-22T09:27:00.000-07:00

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Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

2010-05-10T06:29:00.000-07:00

This book was written as a textbook or guidebook on fluid mechanics for students or junior engineers studying mechanical or civil engineering. The recent progress in the science of visualisation and computational fluid dynamics is astounding. In this book, effort has been made to introduce students /engineers to fluid mechanics by making explanations easy to
understand, including recent information and comparing the theories with actual phenomena.

Fluid mechanics has hitherto been divided into ‘hydraulics’, dealing with the experimental side, and ‘hydrodynamics’, dealing with the theoretical side. In recent years, however, both have merged into an inseparable single science. A great deal was contributed by developments in the science of visualisation and by the progress in computational fluid dynamics using advances in computers. This book is written from this point of view. The following features are included in the book
1. Many illustrations, photographs and items of interest are presented for easy reading.
2. Portrait sketches of 17 selected pioneers who contributed to the development of fluid mechanics are inserted, together with brief descriptions of their achievements in the field.
3. Related major books and papers are presented in footnotes to facilitate advanced study.
4. Exercises appear at the ends of chapters to test understanding of the chapter topic.
5. Special emphasis is placed on flow visualisation and computational fluid 14 colour plates to assist understanding.

Books and papers by senior scholars throughout the world are referenced, with special acknowledgements to some of them. Among these, Professor R.F. Boucher, one of my oldest friends, assumed the role of editor of the English edition and made numerous revisions and additions by checking the book minutely during his busy time as Principal and Vice-Chancellor of UMIST. Another is Professor K. Kanayama of Musashino Academia Musicae who made many suggestions as my private language adviser. In addition, Mr Matthew Flynn and Dr Liz Gooster of Arnold took much trouble over the tedious editing work.I take this opportunity to offer my deepest appreciation to them all.

Yasuki Nakayama

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The Automotive chassis Engineering

2010-05-05T06:25:00.000-07:00

1 Tyres of suspension and drive
1.1 General characteristics of wheel suspensions
1.2 Independent wheel suspensions ñ general
1.2.1 Requirements
1.2.2 Double wishbone suspensions
1.2.3 McPherson struts and strut dampers
1.2.4 Rear axle trailing-arm suspension
1.2.5 Semi-trailing-arm rear axles
1.2.6 Multi-link suspension
1.3 Rigid and semi-rigid crank axles
1.3.1 Rigid axles
1.3.2 Semi rigid crank axles
1.4 Front-mounted engine, rear-mounted drive
1.4.1 Advantages and disadvantages of the front-mounted engine, rear-mounted drive design
1.4.2 Non-driven front axles
1.4.3 Driven rear axles
1.5 Rear and mid engine drive
1.6 Front-wheel drive
1.6.1 Types of design
1.6.2 Advantages and disadvantages of front-wheel drive
1.6.3 Driven front axles
1.6.4 Non-driven rear axles
1.7 Four-wheel drive
1.7.1 Advantages and disadvantages
1.7.2 Four-wheel drive vehicles with overdrive
1.7.3 Manual selection four-wheel drive on commercial and all-terrain vehicles
1.7.4 Permanent four-wheel drive; basic passenger car with front-wheel drive
1.7.5 Permanent four-wheel drive, basic standard design passenger car
1.7.6 Summary of different kinds of four-wheel drive

2 Tyres and wheels
2.1 Tyre requirements
2.1.1 Interchangeability
2.1.2 Passenger car requirements
2.1.3 Commercial vehicle requirements
2.2 Tyre designs
2.2.1 Diagonal ply tyres
2.2.2 Radial ply tyres
2.2.3 Tubeless or tubed
2.2.4 Height-to-width ratio
2.2.5 Tyre dimensions and markings
2.2.6 Tyre load capacities and inflation pressures
2.2.7 Tyre sidewall markings
2.2.8 Rolling circumference and driving speed
2.2.9 Influence of the tyre on the speedometer

2.3 Wheels
2.3.1 Concepts
2.3.2 Rims for passenger cars, light commercial vehicles and trailers
2.3.3 Wheels for passenger cars, light commercial vehicles and trailers
2.3.4 Wheel mountings
2.4 Springing behaviour
2.5 Non-uniformity
2.6 Rolling resistance
2.6.1 Rolling resistance in straight-line driving
2.6.2 Rolling resistance during cornering
2.6.3 Other influencing variables
2.7 Rolling force coefficients and sliding friction
2.7.1 Slip
2.7.2 Friction coefficients and factors
2.7.3 Road influences
2.8 Lateral force and friction coefficients
2.8.1 Lateral forces, slip angle and coefficient of friction
2.8.2 Self-steering properties of vehicles
2.8.3 Coefficients of friction and slip
2.8.4 Lateral cornering force properties on dry road
2.8.5 Influencing variables
2.9 Resulting force coefficient
2.10 Tyre self-aligning torque and caster offset
2.10.1 Tyre self-aligning torque in general
2.10.2 Caster offset
2.10.3 Influences on the front wheels
2.11 Tyre overturning moment and displacement of point of application of force
2.12 Torque steer effects
2.12.1 Torque steer effects as a result of changes in normal force
2.12.2 Torque steer effects resulting from tyre aligning torque
2.12.3 Effect of kinematics and elastokinematics
3 Wheel travel and elastokinematics
3.1 Purpose of the axle settings
3.2 Wheelbase
3.3 Track
3.4 Roll centre and roll axis
3.4.1 Definitions
3.4.2 Body roll axis
3.4.3 Body roll centre on independent wheel suspensions
3.4.4 Body roll centre on twist-beam suspensions
3.4.5 Body roll centre on rigid axles
3.5 Camber
3.5.1 Camber values and data
3.5.2 Kinematic camber alteration
3.5.3 Camber alteration calculation by drawing
3.5.4 Roll camber during cornering
3.5.5 Elasticity camber
3.6 Toe-in and self-steering
3.6.1 Toe-in and crab angle, data and tolerances
3.6.2 Toe-in and steering angle alteration owing to wheel bump-travel kinematics
3.6.3 Toe-in and steering angle alteration due to roll
3.6.4 Toe-in and steering angle alteration due to lateral forces
3.6.5 Toe-in and steering angle alteration due to longitudinal forces
3.7 Steer angle and steering ratio
3.7.1 Steer angle
3.7.2 Track and turning circles
3.7.3 Kinematic steering ratio
3.7.4 Dynamic steering ratio
3.8 Steering self-centring ñ general
3.9 Kingpin inclination and kingpin offset at ground
3.9.1 Relationship between kingpin inclination and kingpin offset at ground (scrub radius)
3.9.2 Braking moment-arm
3.9.3 Longitudinal force moment-arm
3.9.4 Alteration to the kingpin offset
3.10 Caster
3.10.1 Caster trail and angle
3.10.2 Caster and straight running
3.10.3 Righting moments during cornering
3.10.4 Kingpin inclination, camber and caster alteration as a consequence of steering
3.10.5 Kinematic caster alteration on front-wheel travel
3.10.6 Wheel travel-dependent rotation of the rear steering knuckle
3.10.7 Resolution of the vertical wheel force on caster
3.10.8 Settings and tolerances
3.11 Anti-dive and anti-squat mechanisms
3.11.1 Concept description
3.11.2 Vehicle pitch axis front
3.11.3 Pitch axes rear
3.12 Chassis alignment
3.12.1 Devices for measuring and checking chassis alignment
3.12.2 Measuring the caster, kingpin inclination, camber and toe-in alteration

4 Steering
4.1 Steering system
4.1.1 Requirements
4.1.2 Steering system on independent wheel suspensions
4.1.3 Steering system on rigid axles
4.2 Rack and pinion steering
4.2.1 Advantages and disadvantages
4.2.2 Configurations
4.2.3 Steering gear, manual with side tie rod take-off
4.2.4 Steering gear, manual with centre tie rod take-off
4.3 Recirculating ball steering
4.3.1 Advantages and disadvantages
4.3.2 Steering gear
4.4 Power steering systems
4.4.1 Hydraulic power steering systems
4.4.2 Electro-hydraulic power steering systems
4.4.3 Electrical power steering systems
4.5 Steering column
4.6 Steering damper
4.7 Steering kinematics
4.7.1 Influence of type and position of the steering gear
4.7.2 Steering linkage configuration
4.7.3 Tie rod length and position

5 Springing
5.1 Comfort requirements
5.1.1 Springing comfort
5.1.2 Running wheel comfort
5.1.3 Preventing ëfront-end shakeí
5.2 Masses, vibration and spring rates
5.3 Weights and axle loads
5.3.1 Curb weight and vehicle mass
5.3.2 Permissible gross vehicle weight and mass
5.3.3 Permissible payload
5.3.4 Design weight
5.3.5 Permissible axle loads
5.3.6 Load distribution according to ISO 2416
5.4 Springing curves
5.4.1 Front axle
5.4.2 Rear axle
5.4.3 Springing and cornering behaviour
5.4.4 Diagonal springing
5.5 Spring types
5.5.1 Air- and gas-filled spring devices
5.5.2 Steel springs
5.5.3 Stops and supplementary springs
5.5.4 Anti-roll bars
5.6 Shock absorbers (suspension dampers)
5.6.1 Types of fitting
5.6.2 Twin-tube shock absorbers, non-pressurized
5.6.3 Twin-tube shock absorbers, pressurized
5.6.4 Monotube dampers, pressurized
5.6.5 Monotube dampers, non-pressurized
5.6.6 Damping diagrams and characteristics
5.6.7 Damper attachments
5.6.8 Stops and supplementary springs
5.7 Spring/damper units
5.8 McPherson struts and strut dampers
5.8.1 McPherson strut designs
5.8.2 Twin-tube McPherson struts, non-pressurized
5.8.3 Twin-tube McPherson struts, pressurized
5.8.4 Damper struts
5.9 Variable damping

6 Chassis and vehicle overall
6.1 Vehicle and body centre of gravity
6.1.1 Centre of gravity and handling properties
6.1.2 Calculating the vehicle centre of gravity
6.1.3 Axle weights and axle centres of gravity
6.1.4 Body weight and body centre of gravity
6.2 Mass moments of inertia
6.3 Braking behaviour
6.3.1 Braking
6.3.2 Braking stability
6.3.3 Calculating the pitch angle
6.3.4 Influence of radius-arm axes
6.3.5 Anti-dive control and brake reaction support angle
6.4 Traction behaviour
6.4.1 Drive-off from rest
6.4.2 Climbing ability
6.4.3 Skid points
6.5 Platform, unit assembly and common part systems

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Contact Mechanics and Friction

2010-04-30T08:30:00.000-07:00

Table of Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 Contact and Friction Phenomena and their Applications 1
1.2 History of Contact Mechanics and the Physics of Friction 3
1.3 Structure of the Book 7

2 Qualitative Treatment of Contact Problems – Normal Contact without Adhesion 9
2.1 Material Properties 10
2.2 Simple Contact Problems 13
2.3 Estimation Method for Contacts with a Three-Dimensional, Elastic Continuum 16
Problems 20

3 Qualitative Treatment of Adhesive Contacts 25
3.1 Physical Background 26
3.2 Calculation of the Adhesive Force between Curved Surfaces 30
3.3 Qualitative Estimation of the Adhesive Force between Elastic Bodies 31
3.4 Influence of Roughness on Adhesion 33
3.5 Adhesive Tape 34
3.6 Supplementary Information about van der Waals Forces and Surface Energies 35
Problems 36

4 Capillary Forces 41
4.1 Surface Tension and Contact Angles 41
4.2 Hysteresis of Contact Angles 45
4.3 Pressure and the Radius of Curvature 45
4.4 Capillary Bridges 46
4.5 Capillary Force between a Rigid Plane and a Rigid Sphere 47
4.6 Liquids on Rough Surfaces 48
4.7 Capillary Forces and Tribology 49
Problems 50

5 Rigorous Treatment of Contact Problems – Hertzian Contact 55
5.1 Deformation of an Elastic Half-Space being Acted upon by Surface Forces 56
5.2 Hertzian Contact Theory 59
5.3 Contact between Two Elastic Bodies with Curved Surfaces 60
5.4 Contact between a Rigid Cone-Shaped Indenter and an Elastic Half-Space 63
5.5 Internal Stresses in Hertzian Contacts 64
Problems 67

6 Rigorous Treatment of Contact Problems – Adhesive Contact 71
6.1 JKR-Theory 72
Problems 77

7 Contact between Rough Surfaces 81
7.1 Model from Greenwood and Williamson 82
7.2 Plastic Deformation of Asperities 88
7.3 Electrical Contacts 89
7.4 Thermal Contacts 92
7.5 Mechanical Stiffness of Contacts 93
7.6 Seals 93
7.7 Roughness and Adhesion 94
Problems 95

8 Tangential Contact Problems 105
8.1 Deformation of an Elastic Half-Space being Acted upon by Tangential Forces 106
8.2 Deformation of an Elastic Half-Space being Acted upon Tangential Stress Distribution 107
8.3 Tangential Contact Problems without Slip 109
8.4 Tangential Contact Problems Accounting for Slip 110
8.5 Absence of Slip for a Rigid Cylindrical Indenter 114
Problems 114

9 Rolling Contact 119
9.1 Qualitative Discussion of the Processes in a Rolling Contact 120
9.2 Stress Distribution in a Stationary Rolling Contact 122
Problems 128

10 Coulomb’s Law of Friction 133
10.1 Introduction 133
10.2 Static and Kinetic Friction 134
10.3 Angle of Friction 135
10.4 Dependence of the Coefficient of Friction on the Contact Time 136
10.5 Dependence of the Coefficient of Friction on the Normal Force 137
10.6 Dependence of the Coefficient of Friction on Sliding Speed 139
10.7 Dependence of the Coefficient of Friction on the Surface Roughness 139
10.8 Coulomb’s View on the Origin of the Law of Friction 140
10.9 Theory of Bowden and Tabor 142
10.10 Dependence of the Coefficient of Friction on Temperature 145
Problems 146

11 The Prandtl-Tomlinson Model for Dry Friction 155
11.1 Introduction 155
11.2 Basic Properties of the Prandtl-Tomlinson Model 157
11.3 Elastic Instability 161
11.4 Superlubricity 165
11.5 Nanomachines: Concepts for Micro and Nano-Actuators 166
Problems 170

12 Frictionally Induced Vibrations 175
12.1 Frictional Instabilities at Decreasing Dependence of the Frictional Force on the Velocity 176
12.2 Instability in a System with Distributed Elasticity 178
12.3 Critical Damping and Optimal Suppression of Squeal 181
12.4 Active Suppression of Squeal 183
12.5 Strength Aspects during Squeal 185
12.6 Dependence of the Stability Criteria on the Stiffness of the System 186
12.7 Sprag-Slip 191
Problems 193

13 Thermal Effects in Contacts 199
13.1 Introduction 200
13.2 Flash Temperatures in Micro-Contacts 200
13.3 Thermo-Mechanical Instability 202
Problems 203

14 Lubricated Systems 207
14.1 Flow between two parallel plates 208
14.2 Hydrodynamic Lubrication 209
14.3 “Viscous Adhesion” 213
14.4 Rheology of Lubricants 216
14.5 Boundary Layer Lubrication 218
14.6 Elastohydrodynamics 219
14.7 Solid Lubricants 222
Problems 223

15 Viscoelastic Properties of Elastomers 231
15.1 Introduction 231
15.2 Stress-Relaxation 232
15.3 Complex, Frequency-Dependent Shear Moduli 234
15.4 Properties of Complex Moduli 236
15.5 Energy Dissipation in a Viscoelastic Material 237
15.6 Measuring Complex Moduli 238
15.7 Rheological Models 239
15.8 A Simple Rheological Model for Rubber (“Standard Model”) 242
15.9 Influence of Temperature on Rheological Properties 244
15.10 Master Curves 245
15.11 Prony Series 246
Problems 250

16 Rubber Friction and Contact Mechanics of Rubber 255
16.1 Friction between an Elastomer and a Rigid Rough Surface 255
16.2 Rolling Resistance 261
16.3 Adhesive Contact with Elastomers 263
Problems 265

17 Wear 271
17.1 Introduction 271
17.2 Abrasive Wear 272
17.3 Adhesive Wear 275
17.4 Conditions for Low-Wear Friction 278
17.5 Wear as the Transportation of Material from the Friction Zone 279
17.6 Wear of Elastomers 280
Problems 283

18 Friction Under the Influence of Ultrasonic Vibrations 285
18.1 Influence of Ultrasonic Vibrations on Friction from a Macroscopic Point of View 286
18.2 Influence of Ultrasonic Vibrations on Friction from a Microscopic Point of View 291
18.3 Experimental Investigations of the Force of Static Friction as a Function of the Oscillation Amplitude 293
18.4 Experimental Investigations of Kinetic Friction as a Function of Oscillation Amplitude 295
Problems 297

19 Numerical Simulation Methods in Friction Physics 301
19.1 Simulation Methods for Contact and Frictional Problems: An Overview 302
19.1.1 Many-Body Systems 302
19.1.2 Finite Element Methods 303
19.1.3 Boundary Element Method 304
19.1.4 Particle Methods 305
19.2 Reduction of Contact Problems from Three Dimensions to One Dimension 306
19.3 Contact in a Macroscopic Tribological System 307
19.4 Reduction Method for a Multi-Contact Problem 311
19.5 Dimension Reduction and Viscoelastic Properties 315
19.6 Representation of Stress in the Reduction Model 316
19.7 The Calculation Procedure in the Framework of the Reduction Method 317
19.8 Adhesion, Lubrication, Cavitation, and Plastic Deformations in the Framework of the Reduction Method 318
Problems 318

20 Earthquakes and Friction 323
20.1 Introduction 324
20.2 Quantification of Earthquakes 325
20.2.1 Gutenberg-Richter Law 326
20.3 Laws of Friction for Rocks 327
20.4 Stability during Sliding with Rate- and State-Dependent Friction 331
20.5 Nucleation of Earthquakes and Post-Sliding 334
20.6 Foreshocks and Aftershocks 337
20.7 Continuum Mechanics of Block Media and the Structure of Faults 338
20.8 Is it Possible to Predict Earthquakes 342
Problems 343
Appendix 347
Further Reading 351
Figure Reference 357
Index 359

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Chemical Grouting and Soil Stabilization

2010-04-28T08:27:00.000-07:00

1.Introduction
1.1.General
1.2 Modification and Stabilization
1.3 Soil and Rock Sampling
1.4 Degree of Representation
1.5 Safety Factors
1.6 Permanence
1.7 Failure Criteria
1.8 Summary
1.9 General References
1.10 Problems

2.Soil and Rock Properties
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Void Ratio and Porosity
2.3 Density and Relative Density
2.4 Permeability
2.5 Shear Strength
2.6 Consolidation Characteristics
2.7 Stress Transmission
2.8 Soil and Rock Classification
2.9 Rock Properties
2.10 Summary
2.11 References
2.12 Problems

3.Compaction
3.1 Density Measurements
3.2 Shallow Compaction
3.3 Deep Compaction
3.4 Deep Dynamic Compaction
3.5 Preloading
3.6 Blasting
3.7 Summary
3.8 References
3.9 Problems

4.Water Removal and Well pointing
4.1 Sumps
4.2 Drainage Ditches
4.3 Wellpoints
4.4 Deep Wells
4.5 Electro-Osmosis
4.6 Summary
4.7 References
4.8 Problems

5.Ground Freezing
5.1 General
5.2 Refrigeration Systems
5.3 Shallow Applications
5.4 Deep Applications
5.5 Permanence
5.6 Summary
5.7 References
5.8 Problems

6.Piling,Nailing,andMixing
6.1 Piling
6.2 SoilNailing
6.3 ReinforcedFill
6.4 ShallowSoilMixing
6.5 DeepSoilMixing
6.6 Summary
6.7 References
6.8 Problems

7.Slurry Walls and Trenches
7.1 General
7.2 Principles
7.3 Design and Construction
7.4 Summary
7.5 References
7.6 Problems

8.Biostabilization
8.1 Plantings
8.2 Microbial Stabilization
8.3 Summary
8.4 References
8.5 Problems
9.Grouting with Cement
9.1 Grout Materials
9.2 Portland Cement
9.3 Microne Cements
9.4 Jet Grouting
9.5 Compaction Grouting
9.6 Grouting for Dams
9.7 Summary
9.8 References
9.9 Problems

10.Chemical Grouts
10.1 General
10.2 History
10.3 Field Problems Amenable to Grouting
10.4 Grout Properties
10.5 The Ideal Chemical Grout
10.6 Summary
10.7 References
10.8 Problems

11.Commercial Chemical Grouts
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Grouting Materials
11.3 New Products
11.4 Comments and Summary
11.5 References
11.6 Problems

12.Grouting Theory
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Basic Considerations
12.3 Stability of Interface
12.4 Flow Through Soil Voids
12.5 Effect of Pumping Rate on Grout Flow
12.6 Effect of Pumping Pressure on Grout Flow
12.7 Fracturing
12.8 Summary
12.9 References
12.10 Problems

13.Grouting Technology
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Point Injections
13.3 Injections Along a Grout Hole
13.4 Short Gel Times
13.5 Theory of Short Gel Times
13.6 Factors Related to the Use of Short Gel Times
13.7 Uniform Penetration in Stratifed Deposits
13.8 Grout Curtains
13.9 Summary
13.10 References
13.11 Problems

14.Field Equipment
14.1 Introduction
14.2 The Batch Pumping System
14.3 Two-TankSingle-PumpSystems
14.4 Equal Volume Systems
14.5 Metering Systems
14.6O the rChemical Grout Pumps
14.7 Components and Materials of Construction
14.8 Packers
14.9 GroutPipes
14.10 Instrumentation
14.11 Summary
14.12 References
14.13 Problems

15.Field Procedures and Tests
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Determination of Groutability
15.3 Field Pumping Tests
15.4 Field Permeability Tests
15.5 Use of Tracers
15.6 Additives
15.7 Pumping Rate
15.8 Pumping Pressure
15.9 Grouting in Pipes and Holes Manifolding
15.10 Use of Short Gel Times
15.11 Summary
15.12 References
15.13 Problems
16.Grouting to Shutoff Seepage
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Types of See page Problems
16.3 Laboratory Studies
16.4 Field Work
16.5 Summary
16.6 References
16.7 Problems

17.Grout Curtains
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Selection of Grout
17.3 Grout Curtain Patterns
17.4 Design of a Grout Curtain
17.5 Construction of a Grout Curtain
17.6 Rocky Reach Dam
17.7 Small Grout Curtains
17.8 Summary
17.9 References
17.10 Problems
18.Grouting for Strength
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Strength of Grouted Soils
18.3 Grouting for Stability
18.4 Summary
18.5 References
18.6 Problems

19.Grouting in Tunnel sand Shafts
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Shallow Tunnels
19.3 European Practice
19.4 Recent Developments in Tunnel Grouting Practice
19.5 Grout Patterns
19.6 SeikanTunnel
19.7 Shaft Grouting
19.8 Summary
19.9 References
19.10 Bibliography
19.11 Problems
20.Special Applications of Chemical Grouts
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Sewer Line Rehabilitation
20.3 Sampling of Sands,In Situ Density
20.4 Sealing Piezometers
20.5 Controlling Cement
20.6 Sealing Sheet Pile Interlocks
20.7 Summary

20.8 References

21.Specications,Supervision,andInspection
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Specifications for Chemical Grouting
21.3 Supervision of Grouting
21.4 Inspection of Grouting
21.5 Reasons for Unsuccessful Jobs
21.6 Summary
21.7 References
22.Containment of Hazardous Wastes
22.1 General
22.2 Early Disposal Methods
22.3 Detecting Pollution
22.4 Radioactive Wastes
22.5 Oil Spills
22.6 Bioremediation
22.7 Deep Well Injection
22.8 Barrier Walls
22.9 TreatmentMethods
22.10 Summary
22.11 References
22.12 Problems

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BEJAN A. 2003 Heat Transfer Handbook

2010-04-26T08:23:00.000-07:00

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Intelligentized Methodology for Arc Welding

2010-04-24T07:07:00.000-07:00

Abstract

In this chapter,an introductionis given on the development of welding handicraft,manufacturing technology and key technologies of welding automation and intelligentization. Recent twenty years have seen great development of welding

robot in modern manufacturing industry,where arc welding is one of the main stream technology.A large number of researches show that automatic control of the welding process requires not only good performance of the equipment,but also technologies,namely sensing,modeling and controlling of the welding process.None of the technologiesis neglectable for welding process control,in which sensing is to monitor thep rocess and extract characteristic information of the welding process modeling is to identify thep rocess based on acquired information;and controlling is to regulate the welding process based on the established models.The main partin controllingistodesigncontrollerformulti-variablescoupled,nonlinearandtime-
varyingsituations.

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How and Why Machines Work

2010-04-22T09:19:00.000-07:00

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Fluid Mechanics 4th Ed McGrawHill

2010-04-22T09:02:00.000-07:00

The fourth edition of this textbook sees some additions and deletions but no philosophical change. The basic outline of eleven chapters and five appendices remains the same. The triad of integral, differential, and experimental approaches is retained and is approached in that order of presentation. The book is intended for an undergraduate course in fluid mechanics, and there is plenty of material for a full year of instruction.
The author covers the first six chapters and part of Chapter7 in the introductory semester.

The more specialized and applied topics from Chapters 7 to 11 are then covered at our university in a second semester. The informal, student-oriented style is retained and, if it succeeds, has the flavor of an interactive lecture by the author.

Approximately 30 percent of the problem exercises, and some fully worked examples,have been changed or are new. The total number of problem exercises has increased to more than 1500 in this fourth edition. The focus of the new problems is on practical and realistic fluids engineering experiences. Problems are grouped according to topic, and some are labeled either with an asterisk (especially challenging) or a computer-disk icon (where computer solution is recommended). Anumber of new photographs and figures have been added, especially to illustrate new design applications and new instruments.
Professor John Cimbala, of Pennsylvania State University, contributed many of the new problems. He had the great idea of setting comprehensive problems at the end of each chapter, covering a broad range of concepts, often from several different chapters. These comprehensive problems grow and recur throughout the book as new concepts arise. Six more open-ended design projects have been added, making 15 projects in all. The projects allow the student to set sizes and parameters and achieve good design with more than one approach.

An entirely new addition is a set of 95 multiple-choice problems suitable for preparing for the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) Examination. These FE problems come at the end of Chapters 1 to 10. Meant as a realistic practice for the actual FE Exam, they are engineering problems with five suggested answers, all of them plausible, but only one of them correct.
New to this book, and to any fluid mechanics textbook, is a special appendix, Appendix E, Introduction to the Engineering Equation Solver (EES), which is keyed to many examples and problems throughout the book. The author finds EES to be an extremely attractive tool for applied engineering problems. Not only does it solve arbitrarily complex systems of equations, written in any order or form, but also it has builtin property evaluations (density, viscosity, enthalpy, entropy, etc.), linear and nonlinear
regression, and easily formatted parameter studies and publication-quality plotting.

The author is indebted to Professors Sanford Klein and William Beckman, of the University of Wisconsin, for invaluable and continuous help in preparing this EES material.
The book is now available with or without an EES problems disk. The EES engine is available to adopters of the text with the problems disk.
Another welcome addition, especially for students, is Answers to Selected Problems. Over 600 answers are provided, or about 43 percent of all the regular problem assignments. Thus a compromise is struck between sometimes having a specific numerical goal and sometimes directly applying yourself and hoping for the best result.

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Engineering Materials Volume 1

2010-04-22T08:44:00.000-07:00

To the student
Innovation in engineering often means the clever use of a new material - new to a particular application, but not necessarily (although sometimes) new in the sense of ‘recently developed’. Plastic paper clips and ceramic turbine-blades both represent attempts to do better with polymers and ceramics what had previously been done well with metals. And engineering disasters are frequently caused by the misuse of materials. When the plastic tea-spoon buckles as you stir your tea, and when a fleet of aircraft is grounded because cracks have appeared in the tailplane, it is because the engineer who designed them used the wrong materials or did not understand the properties of those used.

So it is vital that the professional engineer should know how to select materials which best fit the demands of the design - economic and aesthetic demands, as well as demands of strength and durability. The designer must understand the properties of materials, and their limitations.
This book gives a broad introduction to these properties and limitations. It cannot make you a materials expert, but it can teach you how to make a sensible choice of material, how to avoid the mistakes that have led to embarrassment or tragedy in the past, and where to turn for further, more detailed, help.

You will notice from the Contents list that the chapters are arranged in groups, each group describing a particular class of properties: the elastic modulus; the fracture toughness; resistance to corrosion and so forth. Each such group of chapters starts by defining the property, describing how it is measured, and giving a table of data that we use to solve problems involving the selection and use of materials. We then move on to the basic science that underlies each property, and show how we can use this fundamental knowledge to design materials with better properties. Each group ends with a chapter
of case studies in which the basic understanding and the data for each property are applied to practical engineering problems involving materials. Each chapter has a list of books for further reuding, ranked so that the more elementary come first.

At the end of the book you will find sets of examples; each example is meant to consolidate or develop a particular point covered in the text. Try to do the examples that derive from a particular chapter whilesthis is still fresh in your mind. In this way you will gain confidence that you are on top of the subject.No engineer attempts to learn or remember tables or lists of data for material
properties. But you should try to remember the broad orders-of-magnitude of these quantities. All grocers know that ’a kg of apples is about 10 apples’ - they still weigh them, but their knowledge prevents them making silly mistakes which might cost them money. In the same way, an engineer should know that ’most elastic moduli lie between 1 and lo3 GN m-2; and are around 102GN mW2 for metals’ - in any real design you need an accurate value, which you can get from suppliers’ specifications; but an order-of- magnitude knowledge prevents you getting the units wrong, or making other silly, and possibly expensive, mistakes. To help you in this, we have added at the end of the book a list of the important definitions and formulae that you should know, or should be able to derive, and a summary of the orders-of-magnitude of materials properties.

To the lecturer
This book is a course in Engineering Materials for engineering students with no previous background in the subject. It is designed to link up with the teaching of Design, Mechanics and Structures, and to meet the needs of engineering students in the 1990s for a first materials course, emphasising applications.

The text is deliberately concise. Each chapter is designed to cover the content of one 50-minute lecture, twenty-seven in all, and allows time for demonstrations and illustrative slides. A list of the slides, and a description of the demonstrations that we have found appropriate to each lecture, are given in Appendix 2. The text contains sets of worked case studies (Chapters 7, 12, 16, 20, 22, 24, 26 and 27) which apply the material of the preceding block of lectures. There are examples for the student at the end of the book; worked solutions are available separately from the publisher.
We have made every effort to keep the mathematical analysis as simple as possible while still retaining the essential physical understanding, and still arriving at results which, although approximate, are useful. But we have avoided mere description: most of the case studies and examples involve analysis, and the use of data, to arrive at numerical solutions to real or postulated problems. This level of analysis, and these data, are of the type that would be used in a preliminary study for the selection of a material or the analysis of a design (or design-failure). It is worth emphasising to students that the next step would be a detailed analysis, using more precise mechanics (from the texts given as 'further reading') and data from the supplier of the material or from in-house testing.
Materials data are notoriously variable. Approximate tabulations like those given here, though useful, should never be used for final designs.

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LOAD & RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN

2010-04-22T06:53:00.000-07:00

OVERVIEW 1-3
STRUCTURAL STEELS 1-5
Availability 1-5
Selection of the Appropriate Structural Steel 1-5
Brittle Fracture Considerations in Structural Design 1-6
Lamellar Tearing 1-8
Jumbo Shapes and Heavy-Welded Built-Up Sections . 1-8
FIRE-RESISTANT CONSTRUCTION   1-8
Effect of Shop Painting on Spray-Applied Fireproofing 1-11
EFFECT OF HEAT ON STRUCTURAL STEEL 1-11
Coefficient of Expansion 1-12
Use of Heat to Straighten, Camber, or Curve Members 1-12
EXPANSION JOINTS 1-13
COMPUTER SOFTWARE   1-14
AISC Database 1-14
AISC for AutoCAD 1-14
STRUCTURAL SHAPES: TABLES OF AVAILABILITY, SIZE GROUPINGS,
PRINCIPAL PRODUCERS 1-15
STEEL PIPE AND STRUCTURAL TUBING: TABLES OF AVAILABILITY,
PRINCIPAL PRODUCERS 1-21
STRUCTURAL SHAPES 1-25
Designations, Dimensions, and Properties 1-25

Tables:
   W Shapes 1-26
   M Shapes    1-44
   S Shapes   1-46
   HP Shapes 1-48
   American Standard Channels (C) 1-50
   Miscellaneous Channels (MC) 1-52
   Angles (L) 1-56
STRUCTURAL TEES (WT, MT, ST) 1-67
Use of Table
DOUBLE ANGLES
Use of Table
COMBINATION SECTIONS
STEEL PIPE AND STRUCTURAL TUBING
General
Steel Pipe
Structural Tubing
BARS AND PLATES
Product Availability
Classification
Bars
Plates
Floor Plates
CRANE RAILS
General Notes
Splices
Welded Splices
Fastenings

TORSION PROPERTIES
SURFACE AREAS AND BOX AREAS
CAMBER
Beams and Girders
Trusses
STANDARD MILL PRACTICE
General Information
Methods of Increasing Areas and Weights by Spreading Rolls
Cambering of Rolled Beams
REFERENCES
OVERVIEW
To facilitate reference to Part 1, the locations of frequently used tables are listed below.
Dimensions and Properties
W Shapes
M Shapes
S Shapes
HP Shapes
American Standard Channels (C)
Miscellaneous Channels (MC)
Angles (L)
Structural Tees (WT, MT, ST)
Double Angles
Combination Sections
Steel Pipe
Structural Tubing
Torsion Properties
Surface Areas and Box Areas
Availability
Availability of Shapes, Plates, and Bars, Table 1-1
Structural Shape Size Groupings, Table 1-2
Principal Producers of Structural Shapes, Table 1-3
Availability of Steel Pipe and Structural Tubing, Table 1-4
Principal Producers of Structural Tubing (TS), Table 1-5
Principal Producers of Steel Tubing (Round), Table 1-6

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First principles of Mechanical and Engineering Drawing

2010-04-20T06:46:00.000-07:00

190 page 11 Mb

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Mechanics and Mechanism of Fracture

2010-04-16T06:25:00.000-07:00

Preface
Chapter 1 Solid Mechanics of Homogeneous Materials
1.1 Key Types of Mechanical Behavior
1.2 Stress and Strain
1.3 Principal Stresses and Principal Strains
1.4 Equivalent Stress and Equivalent Strain
1.5 Stress Analysis of Monolithic Load-Carrying Members
1.6 Stress Analysis Using Finite Element Methods
1.7 Local Stress Distribution at a Geometric Discontinuity
1.8 Stress Analysis of Cracks

Chapter 2 Deformation and Fracture Mechanisms and Static Strength of Metals
2.1 Elastic and Plastic Behavior
2.2 Yield Criteria
2.3 Fracture Criteria
2.4 Fracture Mechanisms and Appearances
2.5 Fracture Strengths
2.6 Residual Stresses
2.7 Material Toughness
2.8 Deformation and Fracture under Sustained Loads

Chapter 3 Fatigue Strength of Metals
3.1 Mechanical Behavior under Cyclic Loads
3.2 Microscopic and Macroscopic Aspects of Fatigue and Crack Propagation
3.3 Fatigue Life,Crack Initiation,Crack Growth,and TotalLife
3.4 Infinite-Life (Stress-Based) Fatigue Strength
3.5 Finite-Life (Strain-Based) Fatigue Strength
3.6 Some Practical Fatigue Design Considerations

Chapter 4 Static and Dynamic Fracture Toughness of Metals
4.1 Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics
4.2 Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness:Static K
4.3 Dynamic K
4.4 Plane-Stress Fracture Toughness, K
4.5 Fracture under Mixed Modes 1 and 2

Chapter 5 Damage Tolerance of Metals
5.1 Stress-Intensity Factor and Damage Tolerance Analysis
5.2 Determination of Stress-Intensity Factors for Nonstandard Configurations
5.3 Fatigue Crack Growth in Room-Temperature Air

Chapter 6 Nonlinear Fracture Mechanics
6.1 Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics
6.2 Time-Dependent Fracture Mechanics

Chapter 7 Mechanical Behavior of Nonmetallic Materials
7.1 Ceramics and Glasses
7.2 Polymers
7.3 Fractography

Chapter 8 Mechanics of Fiber-Reinforced Composites
8.1 Types of Composites
8.2 Coding System 1
8.3 Stresses and Strains in Composite Laminates
8.4 Failure Mechanisms of Composites
8.5 Fracture Mechanics for Fibrous Composites
8.6 Damage Tolerance of Composites
8.7 Some Practical Issues

Appendix 1 Lattice Structure and Deformation Mechanisms in Metallic

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Air Conditioning and Refrigeration repair

2010-04-14T06:16:00.000-07:00

300 pages 20 mb
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Heat Transfer JP HOLMAN

2010-04-12T06:15:00.000-07:00

Dowload Part 1

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Robotic Welding Intelligence and Automation

2010-04-08T01:11:00.000-07:00

Abstract.

For modern transport systems Aluminumis getting of growing importance.To fully utilize this potential economic,effective and stable joining technologies have to be available.However, the special features of Aluminium materials like high heat conductivity,oxide formation,pore and hot cracking susceptibility require special measures for high quality welding especially for thin sheet metals.New developments in gas metal arc welding power sources, torches and wire feeders for Aluminum welding to overcome these problems will be described.Besides the technological factors system aspects and their influencean process stability and manufacturing up-time will also bediscussed.Actual and potential future applications of these new developments will be demonstrated.

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PRACTICAL MATLAB BASICS FOR ENGINEERS

2010-04-06T00:57:00.000-07:00

Content :
1 Trends, the Industry, and MATLAB
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Job Market
1.3 Market and Labor Trends
1.4 Technical Know-How: Trends and Facts
1.5 What Constitutes Essential knowledge
1.6 Technological Trends
1.7 Objective of This Book
1.8 Organization
1.9 What Is a Computer? What Constitutes Hardware?
What Constitutes Software?
1.10 What Is MATLAB ?
1.11 Conventions Used in This Book
1.12 MATLAB Windows
1.13 A Word about Restrictions on the Users Software
1.14 Help
1.15 The Problem
1.16 Problem-Solving Techniques (Heuristics)
1.17 Proofs and Simulations
1.18 Computer Solutions
1.19 The Flowchart

2 Getting Started
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Background
2.4 Examples
2.5 Further Analysis
2.6 Application Problems
3 Matrices, Arrays, Vectors, and Sets
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Background
3.4 Examples
3.5 Further Analysis
3.6 Application Problems
4 Trigonometric, Exponential, Logarithmic, and Special Functions
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Background
4.4 Examples
4.5 Further Analysis
4.6 Application Problems
5 Printing and Plotting
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Background
5.4 Examples
5.5 Further Analysis
5.6 Application Problems
6 Complex Numbers
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 A Brief History
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Background
6.4 Examples
6.5 Further Analysis
6.6 Application Problems
7 Polynomials and Calculus, a Numerical and Symbolic Approach
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
7.3 Background
7.4 Examples
7.5 Further Analysis
7.6 Application Problems
8 Decisions and Relations
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Objectives
8.3 Background
8.4 Examples
8.5 Further Analysis
8.6 Application Problems
9 Files, Statistics, and Performance Analysis
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Objectives
9.3 Background
9.4. Examples
9.5 Further Analysis
9.6 Application Problems

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Paint Technology Handbook

2010-04-03T16:30:00.000-07:00

Preface
Author
Chapter1 Part Preparation Processes and Equipment
1.1 Cleaning
1.1.1 TypesofSoil
1.1.1.1 RustInhibitors
1.1.1.2 ShopDirt
1.1.1.3 Carbon
1.1.1.4 Oxidation
1.1.1.5 Wax
1.1.1.6 Soaps
1.1.1.7 Polymers
1.1.1.8 Silicone
1.1.2 Mechanical Cleaning
1.1.2.1 Blasting
1.1.2.2 Blast Media
1.1.2.3 Vibratory Cleaning or Tumbling
1.1.3 Chemical Cleaning
1.1.4 Chemical Cleaning Processes
1.1.4.1 HandWipe
1.1.4.2 Immersion Cleaning
1.1.4.3 Hand-Held Spray Wand
1.1.4.4 Ultrasonic Cleaning
1.1.4.5 Recirculating Spray Washers
1.1.5 Common Industrial Chemical Cleaners
1.1.5.1 Alkaline Cleaning
1.1.5.2 Neutral Cleaners
1.1.5.3 Acid Cleaners
1.1.6 Surfactants
1.1.7 Factors that Affect the Performance of the Cleaner
1.1.7.1 Quality of Water Supply
1.1.7.2 Soils in Solution
1.1.7.3 Time
1.1.7.4 Temperature
1.1.7.5 SprayPressure
1.1.7.6 Concentration

1.1.8 Methods Used to Measure Cleaning Results
1.1.9 Summary
1.2 Conversion Coatings
1.2.1 Iron Phosphate
1.2.2 Coating Weight
1.2.3 Iron Phosphate Controls
1.2.3.1 Temperature
1.2.3.2 Chemical Concentration
1.2.3.3 Acid Consumed
1.2.4 Zinc Phosphate
1.2.5 Activating (Prior to Zinc Phosphate)
1.2.6 Comparison of Iron Phosphate to Zinc Phosphate
1.3 Rinsing
1.3.1 Rinse and Rinse Seal
1.3.2 Reverse Osmosis (RO) or Deionized (DI) WaterRinse
1.4 Typical Spray Washer Systems
1.4.1 Stages of Pretreatment
1.5 Substrates
1.5.1 Metal Substrates
1.5.1.1 Steel
1.5.1.2 Aluminum
1.5.2 Plastic Substrates
1.5.3 Wood Substrates
1.6 Washer Design
1.6.1 Washer Components
1.6.1.1 Solution Tanks
1.6.1.2 Drainage Spaces
1.6.1.3 Tank and Housing Materials
1.6.1.4 Zinc Phosphate Tank
1.6.1.5 Sludge Removal Tank
1.6.1.6 Access Doors, Ladders, and Lighting
1.6.1.7 Pumps
1.6.1.8 Nozzles
1.6.2 Water Conservation
1.7 Washer Maintenance and Control
1.7.1 Mechanical Maintenance
1.7.2 Chemical Maintenance
1.7.2.1 TDS
1.7.2.2 Temperature
1.7.2.3 pH Measurement
1.7.2.4 Washer Control Methods
1.7.2.5 Manual Bath Control
1.7.2.6 Automated Control Techniques
1.7.2.7 Metering Pumps
1.7.2.8 Theory of Automated Control
1.7.2.9 Conductivity Control
1.7.2.10 Contacting Conductivity
1.7.2.11 Non contacting Conductivity
1.7.2.12 Zinc Phosphate Control
1.7.2.13 pH Controllers
1.7.2.14 Interfacing Controllers with a Computer
1.7.2.15 Data Acquisition Tools
1.7.2.16 Computer Control Systems

Chapter 2 Paint Components
2.1 Resin (Binder)
2.1.1 Oils and Oleoresinous Varnishes
2.1.2 Alkyd Resins
2.1.3 Polyester Resins
2.1.4 Acrylic Resins
2.1.5 Amino Resins
2.1.6 Epoxy Resins
2.1.7 Urethane Resins
2.2 Pigments
2.2.1 White Pigments
2.2.1.1 Titanium Dioxide
2.2.1.2 Zinc Oxide
2.2.1.3 Antimony Oxide
2.2.1.4 White Lead
2.2.2 Yellow Pigments
2.2.2.1 Yellow Dyes
2.2.2.2 Benzidine Yellows
2.2.2.3 Lead Chromates
2.2.2.4 Zinc Chromate
2.2.2.5 Yellow Iron Oxides
2.2.2.6 Cadmium Yellow
2.2.3 Green Pigments
2.2.3.1 Phthalo Green
2.2.3.2 Chromium Oxide
2.2.3.3 Lead Chrome Greens
2.2.4 Blue Pigments
2.2.4.1 Phthalocyan in eBlues
2.2.4.2 Prussian Blue
2.2.4.3 Ultramarine Blue
2.2.5 Red Pigments
2.2.5.1 Toluidine Reds
2.2.5.2 Arylamide Reds
2.2.5.3 Red Iron Oxide
2.2.6 Black Pigments
2.2.6.1 Black Iron Oxide
2.2.6.2 Carbon Blacks
2.2.7 Metallic Pigments
2.2.7.1 Aluminum Pigment
2.2.7.2 Mica
2.3 Extenders
2.3.1 Barites
2.3.2 Kaolin Clay
2.3.3 Talc
2.3.4 Calcium Carbonate (Limestone)

2.4 Solvents
2.4.1 HydrocarbonSolvents
2.4.1.1 Toluene
2.4.1.2 MineralSpirits
2.4.1.3 Xylene
2.4.2 Oxygenated Solvents
2.4.2.1 Buty lAlcohol
2.4.2.2 Ethyl Alcohol
2.4.2.3 Ethylene Glycol Mono ethyl Ether
2.4.2.4 Acetone
2.4.2.5 Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK)
2.4.2.6 MethylI sobutyl Ketone
2.4.2.7 Butyl Acetate
2.4.2.8 Ethyl Acetate

2.5 Additives
2.6 Summary

Chapter 3 Liquid Organic Coatings
3.1 Coatings Selection
3.1.1 Appearance
3.1.2 Performance
3.1.3 Other Factors
3.2 Paint Classifications
3.2.1 Paints Classifed by Task
3.2.1.1 Primers
3.2.1.2 Sealers and Surfacers
3.2.1.3 Topcoat
3.2.2 Paints Classifed by Physical Type
3.2.2.1 Water borne Coatings
3.2.2.2 High-Solids Coatings
3.3 Film Formation
3.3.1 Application
3.3.2 Fixation
3.3.2.1 The Evaporation Factor
3.3.2.2 Rheology
3.3.2.3 Flocculation and Settling
3.3.2.4 Kick-Out
3.3.3 Cure
3.3.3.1 Air Dry
3.3.3.2 Catalyzed Materials
3.3.3.3 Baking Enamels
3.3.4 Dry Film Properties
3.3.4.1 Gloss
3.3.4.2 Hiding Power (Opacity)
3.3.4.3 Color
3.3.4.4 Strength,Hardness,and Brittleness
3.3.4.5 Depth of Color (Metal-FlakePaints)
3.3.5 How Paint Wears Out

Chapter 4 Paint Manufacturing Process
4.1 Equipment Used for Pigment Paste Manufacturing
4.1.1 High-Speed Mixers (HSD,HLM)
4.1.2 Vertical or Horizontal Continuous Mill
4.1.3 Sand Mill
4.1.4 Roll Mill
4.1.5 Ball Mill

Chapter 5 Color Matching and Color Control
5.1 Color Variables
5.2 Metamerism
5.3 Color Measurement Equipment
5.3.1 Color Difference Equations
5.3.2 Tristimulus Filter Colorimeters
5.3.3 Spectrocolorimeters
5.3.4 Computerized Color Matching
5.4 Color Glossary
5.5 Color Standards and Metamerism

Chapter 6 Liquid Paint Application Systems
6.1 Part Preparation
6.1.1 Smoothing
6.2 Spray Application of Paint
6.2.1 Methods of Atomization
6.2.2 Manual Spray Guns
6.2.3 Automatic Spray Equipment
6.2.4 Spray Systems
6.2.4.1 Suction or Siphon Systems
6.2.4.2 PressureFeedSystems
6.2.4.3 Circulating Systems
6.2.4.4 Plural Component Mixing Equipment
6.2.4.5 Air Nozzles
6.2.4.6 Fluid Nozzles
6.2.4.7 Proper Fluid Pressure
6.3 Airless Spray Guns
6.3.1 Fluid Needles and Tips for Airless Systems
6.4 Air-Assisted Airless Spray Guns
6.5 High-Volume Low-Pressure (HVLP)
6.6 Electrostatic Application
6.6.1 Manual Electrostatic Spray Equipment
6.6.2 Coating Formulation for Electrostatic Application
6.6.3 Advantages
6.6.4 Disadvantages
6.6.5 Automatic Spray Equipment
6.6.5.1 Automatic Air-Spray Guns
6.6.5.2 Rotary Atomizers
6.6.5.3 Automatic Spray Supporting Equipment
6.6.5.4 Gun Movers
6.6.5.5 Robotic Painting
6.6.5.6 Summary
6.7 Alternative Application Methods
6.7.1 Dip Coating
6.7.1.1 Advantages of Dip Coating
6.7.1.2 Limitations of Dip Coating
6.7.2 Flow Coating
6.7.2.1 Advantages of Flow Coating
6.7.2.2 Limitations of Flow Coating
6.7.3 Roller Coating
6.7.3.1 Advantages of Roller Coating
6.7.3.2 Disadvantages of Roller Coating
6.7.4 Curtain Coating

Chapter 7 Transfer Effciency and Spray Technique
7.1 Spray Gun Controls
7.2 Application Technique
7.2.1 Atomization
7.2.2 Gun Position
7.2.3 Gun Distance
7.2.4 Gun Speed
7.2.5 Lapping
7.2.6 Heated Spray

Chapter 8 Spray Booths
8.1 NFPA Requirements
8.2 Air Make-Up
8.3 Booth Exhaust Stacks
8.4 Spray Booth Sizing
8.4.1 Spray Booth Height
8.4.2 Spray Booth Width
8.4.3 Spray Booth Depth
8.4.4 Interior Working Dimensions
8.5 Spray Booth Exhaust Sizing
8.6 Filtration
Chapter 9 Curing
9.1 Convection Curing
9.1.1 Duct Design
9.1.2 Oven Fuels
9.1.3 Materials of Construction
9.2 Infra Red Curing
9.3 Oven Maintenance and Cleaning
9.4 Oven Exhaust
9.5 Oven Filtration
9.6 Oven Location
9.7 The Impac to Catalystson Curing
9.8 Heat Recovery
9.9 Summary
Chapter 10 Testing Paint Materials
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Paint Viscosity
10.3 Finished Film Testing
10.3.1 Paint Test Standards
10.3.2 Types of Tests
10.3.2.1 Film Thickness
10.3.2.2 Film Hardness
10.3.2.3 Impact Resistance
10.3.2.4 Tape Adhesion
10.3.2.5 Humidity Testing
10.3.2.6 Salt Spray Testing
10.3.2.7 QUV Testing
10.3.2.8 Outdoor Exposure
10.3.2.9 Temperature Humidity Testing
10.3.2.10 Rinse Blistering
10.3.2.11 Corrosion Cycling
10.3.2.12 Color Matching
10.3.2.13 Gloss
Chapter 11 Quality Control
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Process Control
11.2.1 Scheduling
11.2.2 Racking
11.2.3 Pretreatment
11.2.4 Dry Off Ovens
11.2.5 Cool Down
11.2.6 Paint Application
11.2.6.1 Spray Gun Adjustment
11.2.7 Paint Material
11.2.8 Flash-Off
11.2.9 Curing
11.2.10 Record Keeping
11.3 Paint Film Defects
11.3.1 Production Defects
11.3.1.1 Orange Peel
11.3.1.2 Sagging
11.3.1.3 Flooding,Floating,and Mottle
11.3.1.4 Silking
11.3.1.5 Solvent Pop, Bubbles, Pinholes, and Craters
11.3.1.6 Fisheyes and Silicone Craters
11.3.1.7 Over spray and Dry Spray
11.3.1.8 Blushing
11.3.1.9 Dirt and Contamination
Chapter 12 Cost Analysis for Finishing Systems
12.1 Factors that Affect Cost
12.1.1 System Design
12.1.2 Quality
12.1.3 Substrate Condition
12.1.4 Racking
12.1.4.1 Line Data
12.1.5 Rework
12.1.6 Color Change
12.2 Applied Cos to Paint
12.2.1 Cost per Square Foot of Liquid Spray Coating
12.2.2 Example of Cost Calculation
12.2.3 Cos to Spray Booth Exhaust
12.2.3.1 Example
12.2.4 Solvent-Based Liquid Coating Oven Exhaust
Requirements
12.2.4.1 Example
12.2.5 Heat Loss from Loading
12.2.5.1 Example
12.2.6 Radiant Losses
12.2.6.1 Example
12.2.7 Labor and Maintenance Costs
12.2.7.1 Application Labor for Liquid Spray Coating
12.2.7.2 System Support Labor
12.2.7.3 Example
12.2.8 Electrical Consumption
12.2.8.1 Example
12.2.9 Compressed Air
12.2.10 Total Cost of Paint Application
12.2.11 Quoting a Part
12.2.11.1 Material Cost
12.2.11.2 Labor
12.2.11.3 Burden
12.2.11.4 Fixed Cost
12.2.11.5 Scrap Cost
12.2.11.6 Add Cost
AppendixA
AppendixB
Index

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Heating Systems, Plant and Control

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Contents
1 Introduction1
1.1Heating: the fundamental building service1
1.2Low-pressure hot water1
1.3The need for ef?cient heating systems2
1.4Scope of the book3
1.5Content of the book: an overview37

PART AHEAT GENERATION
2 Boilers and Burners9
2.1De?nition of a boiler9
2.2Principal functional elements of a boiler9
2.2.1Gas-?red boilers9
2.2.2Oil-?red boilers10
2.2.3Solid fuel boilers12
2.3The boiler block12
2.3.1Function of the boiler block12
2.3.2Configuration and design12
2.3.3The multi-pass principle15
2.3.4Water content and temperature differential16
2.3.5Wet-base and dry-base types18
2.4The burner18
2.4.1Function of the burner18
2.4.2Boiler fuels and the combustion process18
2.4.3Burner design23
2.4.4Atmospheric natural gas burners25
2.4.5Fan-assisted and forced-draught natural gas burners29
2.4.6Premix natural gas burners32
2.4.7Other natural gas burners34
2.4.8Burners for other gases34
2.4.9Pressure-jet oil burners36
2.4.10Other atomizing oil burners38
2.4.11Dual-fuel burners39
2.5Burner operation and control39
2.5.1Functions of burner control39
2.5.2Modes of control for burner output40
2.5.3On/off control of burner output40
2.5.4High/low/off control of burner output42
2.5.5Modulating control of burner output45
2.5.6Control of burner safety46
2.6The burner gas line47
2.7The boiler control system49
2.7.1Boiler controls and system controls49
2.7.2Control of the burner50
2.7.3Boiler safety and limit controls52
2.7.4Reporting functions: remote monitoring54
2.8The boiler casing55

3Types of Boiler and Their Needs56
3.1Types of boiler56
3.2Boiler construction materials56
3.2.1Range of materials56
3.2.2Cast-iron56
3.2.3Steel57
3.2.4Copper and aluminium58
3.3Methods of construction59
3.3.1Cast-iron sectional boilers59
3.3.2Fabricated steel boilers61
3.3.3Copper boilers65
3.4Fire-tube and water-tube boilers67
3.5Modular boiler installations67
3.5.1Types of modular boiler installation67
3.5.2Modular boiler systems67
3.5.3True modular boilers69
3.6Heating, hot water service and combined applications72
3.7Condensing operation73
3.7.1Principles and bene?ts73
3.7.2Requirements of condensing operation78
3.7.3Condensing boilers79
3.7.4Condensing economisers84
3.8Boiler ef?ciency87
3.8.1Choosing the correct de?nition87
3.8.2Basis of the de?nition87
3.8.3Gross and net calori?c value88
3.8.4Overall ef?ciency89
3.8.5Combustion ef?ciency90
3.8.6Seasonal ef?ciency91
3.9Carbon intensity92
3.10The needs of the boiler installation93
3.11Hydraulic stability93
3.12Return water temperature94
3.13Pressure in the boiler circuit94
3.14Fuel supply96
3.14.1Natural gas96
3.14.2LPG99
3.14.3Oil100
3.15Ventilation of the boiler plant room105
3.16Water treatment108
4 Alternative Means of Heat Generation113
4.1Scope of the alternatives113
4.2Combined heat and power units113
4.2.1The concept113
4.2.2Application to building services114
4.2.3Principal elements of a small-scale packaged
CHP unit114
4.2.4Typical energy balance for a small-scale packaged CHP unit116
4.2.5Fuels for CHP117
4.2.6The economic case119
4.2.7The CHP unit as part of a boiler installation122
4.3Heat pumps126
4.3.1Principle of operation126
4.3.2Heat sources126
4.3.3Coef?cient of performance128
4.3.4Refrigerants129
4.3.5Application to LPHW heating systems130
4.3.6Cost and environmental performance133
4.4Energy crops and bio-diesel135
4.5Waste as a fuel136

5 Flueing137
5.1Purpose of the ?ue137
5.2Flue and chimney137
5.3Types of ?ue138
5.4Flue draught138
5.5Natural-draught ?ues144
5.6Mechanical-draught ?ues144
5.7Balanced ?ues149
5.8Flue dilution systems153
5.9Sizing of the ?ue156
5.10General design and construction of the ?ue159
5.11Flues for condensing boilers161

PART BSYSTEMS AND CONTROL 163
6 Room Heat Emitters165
6.1Introduction165
6.2General description of heat emitter types165
6.2.1Natural convectors165
6.2.2Fan convectors167
6.2.3Radiators168
6.2.4Radiant panels170
6.2.5Heated ?oors171
6.3Typical heat output rates172
6.3.1Natural convectors173
6.3.2Fan convectors174
6.3.3Radiators and radiant panels175
6.3.4Heated ?oors177
6.4Effect on thermal comfort177
6.5Heat loss rate and energy consumption178
6.6Safety issues181
6.7Controlling heat output rate181
6.7.1Modulation of water ?ow rate181
6.7.2Flow temperature modulation182
6.7.3Combined ?ow rate and temperature modulation183
6.8Under?oor heating183
6.8.1Upward heat ?ow183
6.8.2Downward heat ?ow184
6.8.3Thermal capacitance184
Appendix 6.1Thermal Comfort186
Appendix 6.2Emitter Heat Output Rate Analysis189

7Heating Circuits195
7.1Choice of ?ow and return water temperatures195
7.2Insulation of pipework196
7.2.1Economic insulation thickness197
7.2.2Environmental considerations198
7.2.3Other considerations198
7.3Pipework arrangements199
7.3.1Secondary circuit200
7.3.2Compensated temperature circuit201
7.4Variable volume ?ow201
7.4.1Variable volume pumping203
7.4.2Variable speed drives204
7.4.3Control of variable speed pumps205
7.5Control valves209
7.5.1Valve inherent characteristic211
7.5.2Installed characteristic212
7.5.3Recommended valve authorities213
7.6Forces acting on pipework213
7.6.1Types of support215
7.6.2Spacing of supports215
7.6.3Expansion and contraction216
7.6.4Forces arising from the ?uid218
Appendix 7.1Heat Loss from Pipework220
Appendix 7.2Idealised Pump Characteristics223
Appendix 7.3Forces Due to Fluid Flow225

8 Hot Water Services227
8.1Instantaneous versus storage227
8.2Central versus local systems228
8.3Sizing229
8.3.1Peak instantaneous demand229
8.3.2Time-averaged demand231
8.3.3CIBSE sizing charts for storage systems232
8.4Systems233
8.4.1Domestic storage systems233
8.4.2Non-domestic storage system235
8.4.3Unvented systems237
8.4.4Pumped storage237
8.4.5Hot water generators238
8.4.6Instantaneous239
8.5Solar hot water239
8.5.1Integration with HWS system239
8.5.2Ef?ciency and output of panel240
8.5.3Sizing of the system242
8.6Legionella242
Appendix 8.1Solar Panel Ef?ciency244

9 Sizing Central Boiler Plant247
9.1Design heat output247
9.2Traditional sizing approaches249
9.2.1CIBSE guidance249
9.2.2Plant size and intermittent operation250
9.2.3An economic approach to sizing255
9.3Optimum start control261
9.3.1Optimum start and compensator interaction265
9.3.2Optimum stop265

10 Matching Output to Demand267
10.1Relationship between heating demand, system sizing and boiler capacity267
10.1.1Boiler ef?ciency267
10.1.2System seasonal ef?ciency269
10.2Designing the central plant arrangement269
10.2.1Plant con?guration270
10.3System con?guration272
10.3.1Weather compensation control272
10.3.2Calculating room and emitter temperatures for practical schedules274
10.3.3The implications of compensator control for the central plant278
10.4Primary ring main279
10.5Controlling boiler output280
10.5.1Temperature sensing281
10.5.2Single boiler with ?ow sensing281
10.5.3Multiple units with common header284
10.5.4Sequencing285
10.5.5Common ?ow temperature control286
10.5.6Temperature dilution effects287
10.5.7Flow prevention through un?red boilers287
10.5.8Injection systems288
10.5.9Large systems with cascade control or heat metering289
10.5.10Heat metering290
10.5.11High/low ?ring291
10.5.12Multiple units with modulating burners291
10.5.13Condensing boilers292
10.5.14Anti-cycling and add-on devices292

11Energy Consumption of Heating Systems295
11.1Degree-day based estimates295
11.1.1Calculating degree-days297
11.1.2Calculation errors298
11.1.3Base temperature correction300
11.1.4Application of degree-days300
11.1.5Uncertainty304
11.2Monitoring and targeting of existing systems307
11.2.1Performance lines307
11.2.2Scatter in the performance line308
11.2.3Applying the performance line309
11.2.4Base temperature and the performance line309
11.3Benchmarking311
11.4Normalisation312
11.5Minimising energy use in heating systems313
11.5.1Design313
11.5.2Hot Water Services (HWS)314
11.5.3Management314
Index316

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THERMAL DESIGN OF HEAT-TRANSFER EQUIPMENT

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Introduction to Thermal Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4
Approach to Heat-Exchanger Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4
Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4
Mean Temperature Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..11-4
Countercurrent or Cocurrent Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11-4
Reversed, Mixed, or Cross-Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11-5
Thermal Design for Single-Phase Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ...... . 11-5
Double-Pipe Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . 11-5
Baffled Shell-and-Tube Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7
Thermal Design of Condensers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 11-11
Single-Component Condenser. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 11-11
Multicomponent Condensers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-12
Thermal Design of Reboilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-13
Kettle Reboilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-13
Vertical Thermosiphon Reboilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-13
Forced-Recirculation Reboilers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-13
Thermal Design of Evaporators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-13
Forced-Circulation Evaporators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 11-14
Long-Tube Vertical Evaporators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11-14
Short-Tube Vertical Evaporators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-15
Miscellaneous Evaporator Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11-16
Heat Transfer from Various Metal Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 11-16
Effect of Fluid Properties on Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-17
Effect of Noncondensables on Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 11-18
Batch Operations: Heating and Cooling of Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 11-18
Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 11-18
Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-18
Effect of External Heat Loss or Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-19
Internal Coil or Jacket Plus External Heat Exchange. . . . . . . . . . . ........ . 11-19
Equivalent-Area Concept. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-19
Nonagitated Batches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 11-20
Storage Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-20
Thermal Design of Tank Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-20
Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 11-20
Maintenance of Temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-20
Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-20
Heating and Cooling of Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-21
Tank Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11-21
Teflon Immersion Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-22
Bayonet Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-22
External Coils and Tracers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 11-22
Jacketed Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-22
Extended or Finned Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-22
Finned-Surface Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-22
High Fins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-23
Low Fins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-23
Fouling and Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-23
Control of Fouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-23
Fouling Transients and Operating Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . 11-24
Removal of Fouling Deposits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11-24
Fouling Resistances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-24
Typical Heat-Transfer Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11-24
Thermal Design for Solids Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11-24
Conductive Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-24
Contactive (Direct) Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-29
Convective Heat Transfer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-30
Radiative Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-30
Scraped-Surface Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11-31

TEMA-STYLE SHELL-AND-TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS
Types and Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11-33
TEMA Numbering and Type Designations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 11-33
Functional Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-35
General Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-35
Selection of Flow Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-35
Construction Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-35
Tube Bundle Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-36
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-36
Principal Types of Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-36
Fixed-Tube-Sheet Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-36
U-Tube Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-37
Packed-Lantern-Ring Exchanger. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-39
Outside-Packed Floating-Head Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 11-39
Internal Floating-Head Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-40
Pull-Through Floating-Head Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11-40
Falling-Film Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-40
Tube-Side Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11-41
Tube-Side Header. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-41
Special High-Pressure Closures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-41
Tube-Side Passes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 11-41
Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-41
Rolled Tube Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-41
Welded Tube Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-41
Double-Tube-Sheet Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-43
Shell-Side Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-43
Shell Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-43
Shell-Side Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-43
Baffles and Tube Bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-43
Segmental Baffles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-43
Rod Baffles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-43
Tie Rods and Spacers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-44
Impingement Baffle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-44
Vapor Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-44
Tube-Bundle Bypassing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-44
Helical Baffless . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-45
Longitudinal Flow Baffles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-45
Corrosion in Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-45
Materials of Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-45
Bimetallic Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 11-45
Clad Tube Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 11-46
Nonmetallic Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 11-46
Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-46
Shell-and-Tube Exchanger Costs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-46

HAIRPIN/DOUBLE-PIPE HEAT EXCHANGERS
Principles of Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 11-48
Finned Double Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-48
Multitube Hairpins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 11-48
Design Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 11-49

AIR-COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS
Air Cooled Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 11-49
Forced and Induced Draft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 11-49
Tube Bundle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-50
Tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 11-51
Finned-Tube Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-51
Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 11-51
Fan Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-51
Fan Ring and Plenum Chambers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . 11-52
Air-Flow Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-52
Air Recirculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 11-52
Trim Coolers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 11-52
Humidification Chambers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-52
Evaporative Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-53
Steam Condensers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 11-53
Air-Cooled Overhead Condensers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 11-53
Air-Cooled Heat-Exchanger Costs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 11-53
Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-53

COMPACT AND NONTUBULAR HEAT EXCHANGERS
Compact Heat Exchangers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-54
Plate-and-Frame Exchangers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . 11-54
Gasketed-Plate Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-54
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-54
Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-54
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-55
Welded- and Brazed-Plate Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-57
Combination Welded-Plate Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . 11-57
Spiral-Plate Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 11-57
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-57
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 11-57
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-57
Brazed-Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-58
Design and Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-58
Plate-Fin Tubular Exchangers (PFE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-58
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . 11-58
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 11-58
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 11-58
Printed-Circuit Heat Exchangers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-58
Spiral-Tube Exchangers (STE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 11-59
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-59
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 11-59
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 11-59
Graphite Heat Exchangers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11-59
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-59
Applications and Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 11-59
Cascade Coolers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . 11-59
Bayonet-Tube Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-59
Atmospheric Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-60
Nonmetallic Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-60
PVDF Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-60
Ceramic Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-60
Teflon Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-60

HEAT EXCHANGERS FOR SOLIDS
Equipment for Solidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-60
Table Type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-61
Agitated-Pan Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-61
Vibratory Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-61
Belt Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-61
Rotating-Drum Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-62
Rotating-Shelf Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-62

11-2 HEAT-TRANSFER EQUIPMENT
Equipment for Fusion of Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 11-63
Horizontal-Tank Type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-63
Vertical Agitated-Kettle Type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 11-63
Mill Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 11-63
Heat-Transfer Equipment for Sheeted Solids. . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . .. . . 11-63
Cylinder Heat-Transfer Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-63
Heat-Transfer Equipment for Divided Solids . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 11-64
Fluidized-Bed Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 11-65
Moving-Bed Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-65
Agitated-Pan Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-65
Kneading Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 11-65
Shelf Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-66
Rotating-Shell Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-66
Conveyor-Belt Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-67
Spiral-Conveyor Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-67
Double-Cone Blending Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-68
Vibratory-Conveyor Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-68
Elevator Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-69
Pneumatic-Conveying Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-69
Vacuum-Shelf Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-70

THERMAL INSULATION
Insulation Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 11-70
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-70
Thermal Conductivity (K Factor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 11-70
Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 11-70
System Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 11-71
Cryogenic High Vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-71
Low Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-71
Moderate and High Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-72
Economic Thickness of Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 11-72
Recommended Thickness of Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . 11-73
Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-76
Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-76
Example 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-76
Installation Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-76
Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 11-76
Method of Securing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 11-76
Double Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 11-76
Finish. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-76
Tanks, Vessels, and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-76
Method of Securing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-76
Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-76

AIR CONDITIONING
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 11-76
Comfort Air Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-76
Industrial Air Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-76
Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-76
Air-Conditioning Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-77
Central Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-77
Unitary Refrigerant-Based Air-Conditioning Systems . . . . . . . . ...... . . . . . 11-77
Load Calculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-77

REFRIGERATION
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 11-78
Basic Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-78
Basic Refrigeration Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-79
Mechanical Refrigeration (Vapor-Compression Systems) . . . . . . . . .......... . . 11-79
Vapor-Compression Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-79
Multistage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-79
Cascade System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-82
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-82
Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-82
Positive-Displacement Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-83
Centrifugal Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-85
Condensers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-85
Evaporators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-87
System Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-87
System, Equipment, and Refrigerant Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .....11-90
Other Refrigerant Systems Applied in the Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 11-90
Absorption Refrigeration Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 11-90
Steam-Jet (Ejector) Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-94
Multistage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 11-96
Capacity Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 11-96
Refrigerants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 11-96
Secondary Refrigerants (Antifreezes or Brines) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . 11-97
Organic Compounds (Inhibited Glycols). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... . 11-98
Safety in Refrigeration Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-98

CRYOGENIC PROCESSES
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11-99
Properties of Cryogenic Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11-99
Properties of Solids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . 11-99
Structural Properties at Low Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . 11-99
Thermal Properties at Low Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . 11-100
Electrical Properties at Low Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . 11-100
Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-100
Refrigeration and Liquifaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-100
Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-100
Expansion Types of Refrigerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-100
Miniature Refrigerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-103
Thermodynamic Analyses of Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-103
Process Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. 11-103
Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-103
Expanders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . 11-104
Separation and Purification Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-104
Air-Separation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 11-104
Helium and Natural-Gas Systems Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . 11-106
Gas Purification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 11-106
Storage and Transfer Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 11-107
Insulation Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-107
Types of Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-107
Storage and Transfer Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 11-108
Cryogenic Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-108
Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-109
Liquid Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 11-109
Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 11-109
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-109
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 11-109
Physiological Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-109
Materials and Construction Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 11-109
Flammability and Explosion Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 11-110
High-Pressure Gas Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-110
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-110

EVAPORATORS
Primary Design Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-110
Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-110
Vapor-Liquid Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-110
Selection Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 11-110
Product Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 11-110
Evaporator Types and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-111
Forced-Circulation Evaporators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 11-111
Swirl Flow Evaporators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 11-111
Short-Tube Vertical Evaporators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-112
Long-Tube Vertical Evaporators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 11-112
Horizontal-Tube Evaporators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-113
Miscellaneous Forms of Heating Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 11-114
Evaporators without Heating Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-114
Utilization of Temperature Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-114
Vapor-Liquid Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . 11-114
Evaporator Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-116
Single-Effect Evaporators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-116
Thermocompression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-116
Multiple-Effect Evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-116
Seawater Evaporators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 11-117
Evaporator Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-118
Single-Effect Evaporators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-118
Thermocompression Evaporators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-118
Flash Evaporators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . 11-118
Multiple-Effect Evaporators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-119
Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 11-119
Evaporator Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 11-119
Condensers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 11-119
Vent Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 11-120
Salt Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 11-120
Evaporator Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-121

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Industrial Waste Treatment Handbook

2010-03-20T07:43:00.000-07:00

Content
1 Management of Industrial Wastes: Solids, Liquids, and Gases 1
1.1 Management of Industrial Wastewater 1
1.2 O&M Costs 10
1.3 Management of Solid Wastes from Industries 18
1.4 Management of Discharges to the Air 20
1.5 Bibliography 28

2 Fundamentals 29
2.1 Introduction 29
2.2 Characteristics of Industrial Wastewater 29
2.3 The Polar Properties of Water 30
2.4 Electrical and Thermodynamic Stability 33
2.5 Chemical Structure and Polarity of Water 36
2.6 Hydrogen Bonding 37
2.7 Polar Solvents versus Nonpolar Solvents 38
2.8 Emulsification 40
2.9 Colloidal Suspensions 43
2.10 Mixtures Made Stable by Chelating Agents 44
2.11 Summary 44
2.12 Examples 45
2.13 Bibliography 48

3 Laws and Regulations 49
3.1 Introduction 49
3.2 History of Permitting and Reporting 49
3.3 Requirements 49
3.4 Water Pollution Control Laws 50
3.5 Groundwater Pollution Control Laws 52
3.6 Air Pollution Control Laws 55
3.7 Bibliography 60

4 Wastes from Industries 61
4.1 Chemical Descaling 61
4.2 Degreasing 62
4.3 Rinsing 64
4.4 Electroplating of Tin 65
4.5 The Copper Forming Industry 74
4.6 Prepared Frozen Foods 77
4.7 Wastes From De-inking 86
4.8 Die Casting: Aluminum, Zinc, and Magnesium 93
4.9 Anodizing and Alodizing 99
4.10 Production and Processing of Coke 103
4.11 The Wine-Making Industry 107
4.12 The Synthetic Rubber Industry 110
4.13 The Soft Drink Bottling Industry 119
4.14 Production and Processing of Beef, Pork, and Other Sources of Red Meat 124
4.15 Rendering of By-Products from the Processing of Meat, Poultry, and Fish 130
4.16 The Manufacture of Lead Acid Batteries 138
4.17 Bibliography 144

5 Industrial Stormwater Management 149
5.1 General 149
5.2 Federal Stormwater Regulations 149
5.3 Prevention of Groundwater Contamination 151
5.4 Stormwater Segregation, Collection, Retention, and Treatment 152
5.5 Design Storm 152
5.6 System Failure Protection 153
5.7 Stormwater Retention 153
5.8 Stormwater Treatment 153
5.9 Stormwater as a Source of Process Water Makeup 154
5.10 Bibliography 165

6 Wastes Characterization: The Wastes Characterization Study, Wastes Audit, and the Environmental Audit 166
6.1 Wastes Characterization Study 166
6.2 Wastes Audit 169
6.3 Environmental Audit 172
6.4 Characteristics of Industrial Wastewater 179
6.5 Characteristics of Discharges to the Air 192
6.6 Sample Analysis 198
6.7 Ambient Air Sampling 198
6.8 Characteristics of Solid Waste Streams from Industries 201
6.9 Bibliography 205

7 Pollution Prevention 208
7.1 General Approach 209
7.2 Source Reduction 212
7.3 The Waste Audit 215
7.4 Benefits of Pollution Prevention 216
7.5 Bibliography 216

8 Methods for Treating Wastewaters from Industry 219
8.1 General 219
8.2 Principle and Nonprinciple Treatment Mechanisms 220
8.3 Waste Equalization 223
8.4 pH Control 227
8.5 Chemical Methods of Wastewater Treatment 230
8.6 Biological Methods of Wastewater Treatment 255
8.7 Development of Design Equations for Biological Treatment of Industrial Wastes 256
8.8 Physical Methods of Wastewater Treatment 322
8.9 Bibliography 394
9 Treatment and Disposal of Solid Wastes from Industry 397
9.1 Characterization of Solid Wastes 398
9.2 The Solid Waste Landfill 400
9.3 Solid Waste Incineration 409
9.4 The Process of Composting Industrial Wastes 421
9.5 Solidification and Stabilization of Industrial Solid Wastes 427
9.6 Bibliography 433

10 Methods for Treating Air Discharges from Industry 437
10.1 Reduction at the Source 437
10.2 Containment 437
10.3 Treatment 438
10.4 Bibliography 456
Index 461

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Gas Furnace Guideline

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CHAPTER 1: PREFACE

CHAPTER 2: DESCRIPTION 3
A. Heating Efficiency 3
B. Furnace Types 3
Natural Draft Furnace 4
Fan-Assisted Combustion Furnace 4
Direct Vent Furnace 4
Condensing Furnace 4
Pulse Combustion Furnace 5
C. Furnace Venting 5
Venting Categories 5
Automatic Vent Dampers 6
D. Limitations 6

CHAPTER 3: HISTORY AND STATUS 7
A. Efficiency Ratings 7
B. Energy Efficiency Standards 7
C. Other Standards 8
D. Condensing Furnace Manufacturers 8
Bryant 8
Heil 8
Lennox 8
Thermopride 8
Trane 8

CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS 9
A. Overview 9
B. Energy Savings 9
C. Cost Effectiveness 10

CHAPTER 5: DESIGN ANALYSIS GRAPHS 11
A. Using the Furnace Graphs 11
Annual Energy Cost Savings Graphs 11
Normalized Energy Cost Graphs 11
Cost Effectiveness Graphs 12
B. Energy Cost Savings Graphs 13
90% Efficient, Condensing Furnaces 13
C. Cost Effectiveness Graphs 20
90% Efficient, Condensing Furnaces 20
CHAPTER 6: BIBLIOGRAPHY 29
CHAPTER 7: APPENDIX 31
A. Building Type Descriptions 31
B. Summary of Utility Rates 33
C. Scalar Ratio and SIR 34
Scalar Ratios Simplified 34
Selecting a Scalar Ratio 35
Savings to Investment Ratios (SIRs) 35
Advanced Economic Analysis 36

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Engineers’ Guide to Pressure Equipment The Pocket Reference

2010-03-15T06:34:00.000-07:00

Chapter 1 Websites: Quick Reference 1
1.1 Organizations and associations 1
1.2 General technical information 4
1.3 Directives and legislation 6
1.4 The KKS power plant classification system 7

Chapter 2 Pressure Equipment Types and Components 11
2.1 What is pressure equipment? 11
2.2 Pressure equipment categories 11
2.3 Pressure equipment symbols 13

Chapter 3 Basic Design 21
3.1 Introduction – the influence of codes and standards 21
3.2 Vessel design – basic points 21
3.2.1 Design basis 21
3.2.2 Safety first – corrosion allowance and welded joint efficiency 23
3.2.3 Pressure vessel cylinders 24
3.2.4 Vessel classes 25
3.2.5 Heads 25
3.2.6 Openings and compensation 29
3.2.7 Inspection openings 32
3.2.8 Pipes and flanges 33
3.2.9 Pads 33
3.2.10 Vessel supports 34
3.3 Simple pressure vessels (SPVs) – basic design 35
3.3.1 Material selection 35
3.3.2 Welds 37
3.3.3 Stress calculations 37
3.4 Gas cylinders – basic design 39
3.5 Heat exchangers – basic design 47
3.5.1 Contact-type exchangers 47
3.5.2 Surface-type exchangers 47
3.5.3 Thermal design 47
3.5.4 Special applications 53
3.6 Design by Analysis (DBA) – pr EN 13445 53
3.6.1 What does DBA offer? 53
3.6.2 How does DBA fit into pr EN 13445? 55
3.6.3 DBA – the technical basis 55

Chapter 4 Applications of Pressure Vessel Codes 59
4.1 Principles 59
4.2 Code compliance and intent 59
4.3 Inspection and test plans (ITPs) 60
4.4 Important code content 63
4.5 PD 5500 64
4.5.1 PD 5500 and the PED ESRs 70
4.6 The ASME vessel codes 76
4.6.1 Summary 76
4.6.2 Allowable stresses 81
4.6.3 Cylindrical vessel shells 81
4.6.4 Flat plates, covers, and flanges 85
4.6.5 Vessel openings – general 90
4.6.6 Heat exchangers 91
4.6.7 Special analyses 91
4.6.8 ASME ‘intent’ 95
4.7 TRD 96
4.8 Air receivers 98
4.9 Shell boilers: BS 2790 and EN 12953 101
4.10 Canadian standards association B51-97, part 1 boiler,pressure vessel, and piping code – 1997 106
4.11 CODAP – unfired pressure vessels 107
4.12 Water tube boilers: BS 1113/pr EN 12952 107
4.13 Materials and referenced standards – quick reference 109
4.14 Pressure vessel codes – some referenced standards 111

Chapter 5 Manufacture, QA, Inspection, and Testing 113
5.1 Manufacturing methods and processes 113
5.2 Vessel visual and dimensional examinations 114
5.2.1 The vessel visual examination 114
5.2.2 The vessel dimensional check 116
5.2.3 Vessel markings 118
5.3 Misalignment and distortion 118
5.3.1 What causes misalignment and distortion? 118
5.3.2 Toleranced features 119
5.4 Pressure and leak testing 122
5.4.1 The point of a pressure test 122
5.4.2 The standard hydrostatic test 123
5.4.3 Pneumatic testing 124
5.4.4 Vacuum leak testing 125
5.5 ASME certification 126
5.5.1 The role of the AI (Authorized Inspector) 126
5.5.2 Manufacturers’ data report forms 127
5.5.3 The code symbol stamps 129
5.5.4 ASME and the European Pressure EquipmentDirective (PED) 131
5.6 European inspection terms and bodies: EN 45004: 1995 132
5.7 The role of ISO 9000 133
5.7.1 The objectives of the changes 133
5.7.2 What will the new standards be? 134
5.7.3 What are the implications? 134
5.7.4 The ‘new format’ ISO 9001: 2000 134

Chapter 6 Flanges, Nozzles, Valves, and Fittings 137
6.1 Flanges 137
6.2 Valves 141
6.2.1 Types of valves 141
6.2.2 Valve technical standards 141
6.3 Safety devices 151
6.3.1 Safety relief valves – principles of operation 152
6.3.2 Terminology – safety valves 153
6.4 Nozzles 155
6.5 Power piping – ASME/ANSI B31.1 code 158
6.6 Fittings 161
6.6.1 Pressure equipment fittings 161
6.6.2 Pipework classification 161

Chapter 7 Boilers and HRSGs 167
7.1 Fundamentals of heat transfer 167
7.1.1 Specific heat, c 167
7.1.2 Enthalpy, h 167
7.1.3 Latent heat 168
7.1.4 Steam characteristics 168
7.1.5 Gas characteristics 173
7.2 Heat recovery steam generators (HRSGs) 173
7.2.1 General description 173
7.2.2 HRSG operation 176
7.2.3 HRSG terms and definitions 180
7.2.4 HRSG materials 183

Chapter 8 Materials of Construction 185
8.1 Plain carbon steels — basic data 185
8.2 Alloy steels 185
8.3 Stainless steels – basic data 186
8.4 Non-ferrous alloys – basic data 189
8.5 Material traceability 190
8.6 Materials standards – references 192

Chapter 9 Welding and NDT 195
9.1 Weld types and symbols 195
9.2 Weld processes 195
9.3 Welding standards and procedures 203
9.4 Destructive testing of welds 205
9.4.1 Test plates 205
9.4.2 The tests 205
9.5 Non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques 209
9.5.1 Visual examination 209
9.5.2 Dye penetrant (DP) testing 209
9.5.3 Magnetic particle (MP) testing 212
9.5.4 Ultrasonic testing (UT) 213
9.5.5 Radiographic testing (RT) 219
9.6 NDT acronyms 223
9.7 NDT: vessel code applications 225
9.8 NDT standards and references 227

Chapter 10 Failure 229
10.1 How pressure equipment materials fail 229
10.1.1 LEFM method 230
10.1.2 Multi-axis stresses states 231
10.2 Fatigue 232
10.2.1 Typical pressure equipment material fatigue limits 233
10.2.2 Fatigue strength – rules of thumb 234
10.3 Creep 235
10.4 Corrosion 238
10.4.1 Types of corrosion 238
10.4.2 Useful references 241
10.5 Boiler failure modes 241
10.6 Failure-related terminology 244

Chapter 11 Pressure Equipment: Directives and Legislation 249
11.1 Introduction: what’s this all about? 249
11.1.1 The driving forces 249
11.1.2 The EU ‘new approaches’ 250
11.2 The role of technical standards 250
11.2.1 Harmonized standards 250
11.2.2 National standards 251
11.2.3 The situation for pressure equipment 251
11.3 Vessel ‘statutory’ certification 253
11.3.1 Why was certification needed? 253
11.3.2 What was certification? 253
11.3.3 Who could certificate vessels? 254
11.4 The CE mark – what is it? 255
11.5 Simple pressure vessels 255
11.6 The simple pressure vessels directive and regulations 256
11.6.1 SPVs – summary 256
11.6.2 Categories of SPVs 257
11.6.3 SPV harmonized standards 264
11.7 Transportable pressure receptacles: legislation and regulations 265
11.7.1 TPRs legislation 265
11.8 The pressure equipment directive (PED) 97/23/EC 271
11.8.1 PED summary 271
11.8.2 PED – its purpose 273
11.8.3 PED – its scope 273
11.8.4 PED – its structure 274
11.8.5 PED – conformity assessment procedures 275
11.8.6 Essential safety requirements (ESRs) 294
11.8.7 Declaration of conformity 311
11.8.8 Pressure equipment marking 312
11.9 Pressure Equipment Regulations 1999 312
11.9.1 The Pressure Equipment regulations – structure 312
11.10 Notified Bodies 314
11.10.1 What are they? 314
11.10.2 UK Notified Bodies 314
11.11 Sources of information 317
11.11.1 Pressure system safety – general 317
11.11.2 Transportable pressure receptacles (gas cylinders) 318
11.11.3 The simple pressure vessel directive/regulations 318
11.11.4 The pressure equipment directive 318
11.11.5 The pressure equipment regulations 319
11.11.6 PSSRs and written schemes 319

Chapter 12 In-service Inspection 321
12.1 A bit of history 321
12.2 The Pressure Systems Safety Regulations (PSSRs) 2000 322

Chapter 13 References and Information Sources 325
13.1 European Pressure Equipment Research Council (EPERC) 325
13.2 European and American associations and organizations relevant to pressure equipment activities 327
13.3 Pressure vessel technology references 335
Appendix 1 Steam Properties Data 337
Appendix 2 Some European Notified Bodies (PED) 343
Notified Bodies (PED Article 12) 343
Recognized Third-Party Organizations (PED Article 13) 348
Appendix 3 Standards and Directives Current Status 351
Index 383

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Duct Design and Installation

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ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING CATHODIC PROTECTION

2010-03-13T04:01:00.000-08:00

Section 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Scope. ........................... 1
1.2 Cancellation. ........................ 1
1.3 Related Technical Documents. ................ 1
Section 2 CATHODIC PROTECTION CONCEPTS
2.1 Corrosion as an Electrochemical Process. .......... 3
2.1.1 Driving Force. ....................... 3
2.1.2 The Electrochemical Cell. .................. 3
2.1.2.1 Components of the Electrochemical Cell. ........... 3
2.1.2.2 Reactions in an Electrochemical Cell. ............ 3
2.2 The Electrochemical Basis for Cathodic Protection. ...... 4
2.2.1 Potentials Required for Cathodic Protection. ........ 4
2.3 Practical Application of Cathodic Protection. ........ 5
2.3.1 When Cathodic Protection Should Be Considered. ....... 5
2.3.1.1 Where Feasible. ....................... 5
2.3.1.2 When Indicated By Experience. ................ 5
2.3.1.3 As Required By Regulation. ................. 5
2.3.2 Functional Requirements for Cathodic Protection ....... 8
2.3.2.1 Continuity. ......................... 8
2.3.2.2 Electrolyte. ........................ 8
2.3.2.3 Source of Current. ..................... 8
2.3.2.4 Connection to Structure. .................. 8
2.4 Sacrificial Anode Systems. ................. 8
2.4.1 Anode Materials. ...................... 9
2.4.2 Connection to Structure. .................. 10
2.4.3 Other Requirements. ..................... 10
2.5 Impressed Current Systems. ................. 10
2.5.1 Anode Materials. ...................... 10
2.5.2 Direct Current Power Source. ................ 10
2.5.3 Connection to Structure. .................. 10
2.5.4 Other Requirements. ..................... 11

Section 3 CRITERIA FOR CATHODIC PROTECTION
3.1 Introduction. ........................ 13
3.2 Electrical Criteria. .................... 13
3.3 Interpretation of Structure-to-Electrolyte
Potential Readings. ..................... 13
3.3.1 National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE)Standard RP-01-69. ......... 13
3.3.1.1 Criteria for Steel. ..................... 15
3.3.1.2 Criteria for Aluminum. ................... 15
3.3.1.3 Criteria for Copper. .................... 15
3.3.1.4 Criteria for Dissimilar Metal Structures. .......... 15
3.3.2 Other Electrical Criteria. ................. 15
3.3.2.1 Criteria for Lead. ..................... 16
3.3.2.2 NACE RP-02-85. ....................... 16
3.4 Failure Rate Analysis. ................... 16
3.5 Nondestructive Testing of Facility. ............. 16
3.5.1 Visual Analysis. ...................... 16
3.6 Consequences of Underprotection. .............. 17
3.7 Consequences of Overprotection. ............... 18
3.7.1 Coating Disbondment. .................... 18
3.7.2 Hydrogen Embrittlement. ........... ........ 18

Section 4 CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEM DESIGN PRINCIPLES
4.1 Introduction. ........................ 19
4.2 General Design Procedures. ................. 19
4.2.1 Drawings and Specifications. ................ 19
4.2.1.1 Drawings and Specifications for the Structure to be Protected. ...... 19
4.2.1.2 Site Drawings. ....................... 19
4.2.2 Field Surveys. ....................... 20
4.2.2.1 Water Analysis. ....................... 20
4.2.2.2 Soil Characteristics. .................... 20
4.2.2.3 Current Requirement Tests. ................. 21
4.2.2.4 Location of Other Structures in the Area. .......... 22
4.2.2.5 Availability of ac Power. .................. 22
4.2.3 Current Requirements. .................... 22
4.2.4 Choice of Sacrificial or Impressed Current System. ...... 22
4.2.5 Basic Design Procedure for Sacrificial Anode Systems. ... 23
4.2.6 Basic Design Procedure for Impressed Current Systems. .... 24
4.2.6.1 Total Current Determination. ................ 24
4.2.6.2 Total Resistance Determination. ............... 26
4.2.6.3 Voltage and Rectifier Determination. ............ 27
4.2.7 Analysis of Design Factors. ................. 28
4.3 Determination of Field Data. ................ 28
4.3.1 Determination of Electrolyte Resistivity .......... 29
4.3.1.1 In Soils. .......................... 29
4.3.1.2 Liquids. .......................... 29
4.3.2 Chemical Analysis of the Environment ............ 31
4.3.2.1 pH. ............................. 31
4.3.3 Coating Conductance. .................... 31
4.3.3.1 Short Line Method. ..................... 33
4.3.3.2 Long Line Method. ...................... 33
4.3.4 Continuity Testing. ..................... 35
4.3.4.1 Method 1. .......................... 35
4.3.4.2 Method 2. .......................... 35
4.3.4.3 Method 3. .......................... 35
4.3.5 Insulation Testing. ..................... 35
4.3.5.1 Buried Structures. ..................... 35
4.3.5.2 Aboveground Structures. ................... 38
4.4 Corrosion Survey Checklist. ................. 38

Section 5 PRECAUTIONS FOR CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEM DESIGN
5.1 Introduction. ........................ 39
5.2 Excessive Currents and Voltages. .............. 39
5.2.1 Interference. ........................ 39
5.2.1.1 Detecting Interference. ................... 41
5.2.1.2 Control of Interference - Anode Bed Location. ........ 43
5.2.1.3 Control of Interference - Direct Bonding. .......... 43
5.2.1.4 Control of Interference - Resistive Bonding. ........ 45
5.2.1.5 Control of Interference - Sacrificial Anodes. ........ 47
5.2.2 Effects of High Current Density. .............. 47
5.2.3 Effects of Electrolyte pH. ................. 47
5.3 Hazards Associated with Cathodic Protection. ........ 49
5.3.1 Explosive Hazards. ..................... 49
5.3.2 Bonding for Electrical Safety. ............... 49
5.3.3 Induced Alternating Currents. . ............... 50

Section 6 IMPRESSED CURRENT SYSTEM
6.1 Advantages of Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Systems. .... 53
6.2 Determination of Circuit Resistance. ............ 53
6.2.1 Anode-to-Electrolyte Resistance. .............. 53
6.2.1.1 Effect on System Design and Performance. .......... 53
6.2.1.2 Calculation of Anode-to-Electrolyte Resistance ....... 54
6.2.1.3 Basic Equations ....................... 54
6.2.1.4 Simplified Expressions for Common Situations. ........ 55
6.2.1.5 Field Measurement. ..................... 57
6.2.1.6 Effect of Backfill. ..................... 58
6.2.2 Structure-to-Electrolyte Resistance. ............ 59
6.2.3 Connecting Cable Resistance. ................ 59
6.2.4 Resistance of Connections and Splices. ........... 59
6.3 Determination of Power Supply Requirements. ......... 59
6.4 Selection of Power Supply Type. ............... 60
6.4.1 Rectifiers. ......................... 60
6.4.2 Thermoelectric Generators. ................. 60
6.4.3 Solar. ........................... 60
6.4.4 Batteries. ......................... 60
6.4.5 Generators. ......................... 60
6.5 Rectifier Selection. .................... 60
6.5.1 Rectifier Components. .................... 61
6.5.1.1 Transformer Component. ................... 61
6.5.1.2 Rectifying Elements. .................... 61
6.5.1.3 Overload Protection. .................... 61
6.5.1.4 Meters. ........................... 63
6.5.2 Standard Rectifier Types .................. 63
6.5.2.1 Single-Phase Bridge. .................... 63
6.5.2.2 Single-Phase Center Tap. .................. 63
6.5.2.3 Three-Phase Bridge. ..................... 63
6.5.2.4 Three-Phase Wye. ...................... 65
6.5.2.5 Special Rectifier Types ................... 65
6.5.3 Rectifier Selection and Specifications. ........... 68
6.5.3.1 Available Features. ..................... 69
6.5.3.2 Air Cooled Versus Oil Immersed. ............... 69
6.5.3.3 Selecting ac Voltage. .................... 70
6.5.3.4 dc Voltage and Current Output. ............... 70
6.5.3.5 Filters. .......................... 70
6.5.3.6 Explosion Proof Rectifiers. ................. 70
6.5.3.7 Lightning Arresters. .................... 71
6.5.3.8 Selenium Versus Silicon Stacks. ............... 71
6.5.3.9 Other Options. ....................... 71
6.5.3.10 Rectifier Alternating Current Rating. ............ 71
6.6 Anodes for Impressed Current Systems. ............ 73
6.6.1 Graphite Anodes. ...................... 74
6.6.1.1 Specifications. ....................... 74
6.6.1.2 Available Sizes. ...................... 74
6.6.1.3 Characteristics. ...................... 77
6.6.1.4 Operation. ......................... 77
6.6.2 High Silicon Cast Iron. ................... 78
6.6.3 High Silicon Chromium Bearing Cast Iron (HSCBCI). .... 78
6.6.3.1 Specifications. ....................... 78
6.6.3.2 Available Sizes. ...................... 79
6.6.3.3 Operation. ......................... 79
6.6.4 Aluminum. .......................... 79
6.6.5 Platinum. .......................... 79
6.6.6 Platinized Anodes. ..................... 79
6.6.6.1 Types. ........................... 90
6.6.6.2 Operation. ......................... 91
6.6.7 Alloyed Lead. ........................ 91
6.7 Other System Components. .................. 91
6.7.1 Connecting Cables. ..................... 91
6.7.1.1 Factors to be Considered. .................. 91
6.7.1.2 Insulation. ......................... 92
6.7.1.3 Recommended Cables for Specific Applications. ........ 93
6.7.1.4 Economic Wire Size. ..................... 93
6.7.2 Wire Splices and Connections. ................ 94
6.7.3 Test Stations. ....................... 96
6.7.4 Bonds. ........................... 96
6.7.5 Insulating Joints. ................ ..... 96

Section 7 SACRIFICIAL ANODE SYSTEM DESIGN
7.1 Theory of Operation. ................... . 113
7.1.1 Advantages of Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection Systems. .... . 113
7.1.2 Disadvantages of Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection Systems. ..... . 113
7.2 Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection System DesignProcedures. ...... . 113
7.3 Determination of Current Required for Protection. ...................... . 114
7.4 Determination of Anode Output. .............. . 114
7.4.1 Simplified Method for Common Situations. ......... . 114
7.4.2 Determination of Output Using Anode-to-Electrolyte Resistance. ... . 114
7.4.2.1 Calculation of Anode-to-Electrolyte Resistance. ...... . 114
7.4.2.2 Determination of Structure-to-Electrolyte Resistance. .. . 115
7.4.2.3 Connecting Cable Resistance. ............... . 115
7.4.2.4 Resistance of Connections and Splices. .......... . 115
7.4.2.5 Total Circuit Resistance. ................. . 115
7.4.2.6 Anode-to-Structure Potential. ............... . 115
7.4.2.7 Anode Output Current. ................... . 115
7.4.3 Field Measurement of Anode Output. ............ . 116
7.5 Determination of Number of Anodes Required. ........ . 116
7.6 Determination of Anode Life. ............... . 116
7.7 Seasonal Variation in Anode Output. ............ . 117
7.8 Sacrificial Anode Materials ................ . 117
7.8.1 Magnesium. ........................ . 117
7.8.1.1 Composition. ....................... . 118
7.8.1.2 Anode Efficiency. ..................... . 118
7.8.1.3 Potentials. ........................ . 119
7.8.1.4 Sizes. .......................... . 119
7.8.1.5 Current Output. ...................... . 119
7.8.1.6 Backfill. ......................... . 119
7.8.2 Zinc. ........................... . 119
7.8.2.1 Composition. ....................... . 125
7.8.2.2 Anode Efficiency. ..................... . 125
7.8.2.3 Potentials. ........................ . 125
7.8.2.4 Sizes. .......................... . 126
7.8.2.5 Current Output. ...................... . 126
7.8.2.6 Backfill. ......................... . 126
7.8.3 Aluminum. ......................... . 126
7.8.3.1 Composition. ....................... . 127
7.8.3.2 Anode Efficiency. ..................... . 127
7.8.3.3 Potentials. ........................ . 127
7.8.3.4 Sizes. .......................... . 127
7.8.3.5 Current Output. ...................... . 127
7.9 Other System Components .................. . 127
7.9.1 Connecting Wires. ..................... . 127
7.9.1.1 Determination of Connecting Wire Size and Type. ...... . 133
7.9.2 Connections and Splices. ................. . 134
7.9.3 Bonds and Insulating Joints. ............... . 134
7.9.4 Test Station Location and Function. ............ . 134
7.9.5 Backfill. ......................... . 135

Section 8 TYPICAL CATHODIC PROTECTION
8.1 Diagrams of Cathodic Protection Systems. ......... . 137

Section 9 CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEM DESIGN EXAMPLES
9.1 Introduction. ....................... . 155
9.2 Elevated Steel Water Tank. ................ . 155
9.2.1 Design Data ........................ . 156
9.2.2 Computations ....................... . 156
9.3 Elevated Water Tank (Where Ice is Expected). ....... . 173
9.3.1 Design Data ........................ . 176
9.3.2 Computations ....................... . 176
9.4 Steel Gas Main. ...................... . 177
9.4.1 Design Data ........................ . 180
9.4.2 Computations ....................... . 180
9.5 Gas Distribution System. ................. . 184
9.5.1 Design Data ........................ . 185
9.5.2 Computations ....................... . 185

Page
9.6 Black Iron, Hot Water Storage Tank. ............ . 187
9.6.1 Design Data ........................ . 188
9.6.2 Computations ....................... . 188
9.7 Underground Steel Storage Tank. .............. . 190
9.7.1 Design Data ........................ . 190
9.7.2 Computations ....................... . 192
9.8 Heating Distribution System. ............... . 192
9.8.1 Design Data ........................ . 192
9.8.2 Computations ....................... . 193
9.8.3 Groundbed Design ..................... . 194
9.8.4 Rectifier Location. .................... . 195
9.9 Aircraft Multiple Hydrant Refueling System. ........ . 195
9.9.1 Design Data ........................ . 195
9.9.2 Computations. ....................... . 196
9.10 Steel Sheet Piling in Seawater (Galvanic nodes). ..... . 199
9.10.1 Design Data ........................ . 199
9.10.2 Computations ....................... . 201
9.11 Steel Sheet Piling in Seawater (Impressed Current
9.11.1 Design Data. ....................... . 203
9.11.2 Computations ....................... . 203
9.12 Steel H Piling in Seawater (Galvanic Anodes). ....... . 207
9.12.1 Design Data ........................ . 208
9.12.2 Computations ....................... . 208
9.13 Steel H Piling in Seawater (Impressed Current). ...... . 210
9.13.1 Design Data ........................ . 210
9.13.2 Computations ....................... . 210

Section 10 INSTALLATION AND CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
10.1 Factors to Consider. ................... . 213
10.2 Planning of Construction. ................. . 213
10.3 Pipeline Coating. ..................... . 213
10.3.1 Over-the-Ditch Coating. .................. . 213
10.3.2 Yard Applied Coating. ................... . 213
10.3.3 Joint and Damage Repair. ................. . 214
10.3.4 Inspection. ........................ . 214
10.4 Coatings for Other Structures. .............. . 214
10.5 Pipeline Installation. .................. . 214
10.5.1 Casings. ......................... . 214
10.5.2 Foreign Pipeline Crossings. ................ . 215
10.5.3 Insulating Joints. .................... . 215
10.5.4 Bonds. .......................... . 216
10.6 Electrical Connections. .................. . 216
10.7 Test Stations. ...................... . 216
10.8 Sacrificial Anode Installation. .............. . 216
10.8.1 Vertical. ......................... . 216
10.8.2 Horizontal. ........................ . 217
10.9 Impressed Current Anode Installation. ........... . 217
10.9.1 Vertical. ......................... . 219
10.9.2 Horizontal. ........................ . 219
10.9.3 Deep Anode Beds. ..................... . 219
10.9.4 Other Anode Types. .................... . 225
10.9.5 Connections. ....................... . 225
Page
10.10 Impressed Current Rectifier Installation. ......... . 225
Section 11 SYSTEM CHECKOUT AND INITIAL ADJUSTMENTS
11.1 Introduction. ....................... . 229
11.2 Initial Potential Survey. ................. . 229
11.3 Detection and Correction of Interference. ......... . 229
11.4 Adjustment of Impressed Current Systems. ......... . 229
11.4.1 Uneven Structure-To-Electrolyte Potentials. ........ . 229
11.4.2 Rectifier Voltage and Current Capacity. .......... . 230
11.5 Adjustment of Sacrificial Anode Systems. ......... . 230
11.5.1 Low Anode Current Levels. ................. . 230
11.5.2 Inadequate Protection at Designed Current Levels ..... . 230

Section 12 MAINTAINING CATHODIC PROTECTION
12.1 Introduction. ....................... . 231
12.2 Required Periodic Monitoring and Maintenance. ....... . 231
12.3 Design Data Required for System Maintenance. ....... . 231
12.3.1 Drawings. ......................... . 231
12.3.2 System Data. ....................... . 231
12.3.2.1 Design Potentials. .................... . 231
12.3.2.2 Current Output. ...................... . 231
12.3.2.3 System Settings and Potential Readings. .......... . 231
12.3.2.4 Rectifier Instructions. .................. . 232
12.4 Basic Maintenance Requirements. .............. . 232
12.5 Guidance for Maintenance ................. . 232
12.5.1 Agency Maintenance and Operations Manuals. ........ . 232
12.5.2 DOT Regulations. ..................... . 235
12.5.3 NACE Standards. ...................... . 235

Section 13 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
13.1 Importance of Economic Analysis. ............. . 237
13.2 Economic Analysis Process. ................ . 237
13.2.1 Define the Objective. ................... . 237
13.2.2 Generate Alternatives. .................. . 238
13.2.3 Formulate Assumptions. .................. . 238
13.2.4 Determine Costs and Benefits. ............... . 238
13.2.4.1 Costs. .......................... . 238
13.2.4.2 Benefits. ......................... . 239
13.2.5 Compare Costs and Benefits and Rank Alternatives. .... . 239
13.2.6 Perform Sensitivity Analysis. ............... . 239
13.3 Design of Cathodic Protection Systems. .......... . 239
13.4 Economic Analysis - Example 1 ............... . 240
13.4.1 Objective. ........................ . 240
13.4.2 Alternatives ....................... . 240
13.4.3 Assumptions ........................ . 240
13.4.4 Cost/Benefit Analysis ................... . 240
13.4.4.1 Cost - Alternative 1--Steel Line Without Cathodic Protection. ... . 240
13.4.4.2 Cost - Alternative 2--Steel Line with Cathodic Protection. ......... . 242
13.4.4.3 Cost - Alternative 3--Plastic Line. ............ . 242
13.4.4.4 Benefits. ......................... . 243
13.4.5 Compare Costs/Benefits .................. . 243
13.5 Economic Analysis - Example 2 ............... . 243
13.5.1 Objective. ........................ . 243
13.5.2 Alternative ........................ . 243
13.5.3 Assumptions ........................ . 243
13.5.4 Cost/Benefit Analysis ................... . 244
13.5.4.1 Cost - Alternative 1--Steel Line Without Cathodic Protection. ... . 244
13.5.4.2 Cost - Alternative 2--Steel Line With Cathodic Protection. ....... . 245
13.5.4.3 Benefits. ......................... . 246
13.5.5 Compare Costs/Benefits .................. . 246
13.5.6 Conclusions and Recommendations. ............. . 247
13.6 Economic Analysis - Example 3 ............... . 247
13.6.1 Objective. ........................ . 247
13.6.2 Alternatives ....................... . 247
13.6.3 Assumptions ........................ . 247
13.6.4 Cost/Benefit Analysis ................... . 247
13.6.4.1 Cost - Alternative 1--Impressed Current Cathodic Protection. ... . 247
13.6.4.2 Cost - Alternative 2--Galvanic Anode System. ....... . 248
13.6.5 Compare Costs/Benefits .................. . 249
13.7 Economic Analysis - Example 4 ............... . 249
13.7.1 Objective ......................... . 249
13.7.2 Alternatives ....................... . 249
13.7.3 Assumptions ........................ . 249
13.7.4 Cost/Benefit Analysis ................... . 249
13.7.4.1 Cost - Alternative 1--Cathodic Protection System Maintenance Continued. .. . 249
13.7.4.2 Cost - Alternative 2--Cathodic Protection System Maintenance Discontinued. . . 250
13.7.5 Compare Benefits and Costs ................ . 251
13.8 Economic Analysis Goal. .................. . 251

Section 14 CORROSION COORDINATING COMMITTEE PARTICIPATION
14.1 Introduction. ....................... . 253
14.2 Functions of Corrosion Coordinating Committees. ...... . 253
14.3 Operation of the Committees. ............... . 253
14.4 Locations of Committees. ................. . 253
APPENDIX
APPENDIX A UNDERGROUND CORROSION SURVEY CHECKLIST .......... . 255
B ECONOMIC LIFE GUIDELINES ................. . 265
C PROJECT YEAR DISCOUNT FACTORS ............... . 267
D PRESENT VALUE FORMULAE .................. . 269
E DOT REGULATIONS ...................... . 271

Total 2.2 Mb 319 pages

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Design, Construction, and Operation SMALL WASTEWATER SYSTEMS

2010-03-10T08:07:00.000-08:00

Chapter 1
Introduction
Purpose 1-1
Applicability 1-2
References 1-3
Distribution Statement 1-4
Laws and Regulations 1-5

Chapter 2
Preliminary Data Requirements General 2-1
Recreational Facilities 2-2
Determination of Effluent Limitations 2-3
Site Selection Factors 2-4

Chapter 3
Wastewater Generation and Characterization General 3-1
Visitation and Length of Stay 3-2
Variations in Visitation 3-3
Water Usage and Wastewater Generation 3-4
Monthly and Daily Flow Distribution 3-5
Wastewater Characterization 3-6

Chapter 4
Collection Systems General 4-1
Absence of Pressurized Water Supply 4-2
Transport by Truck 4-3
Gravity Flow Systems 4-4
Force Main Systems 4-5
Alternative Wastewater Collection Systems 4-6

Chapter 5
Treatment Design Considerations General 5-1
Small Individual Units 5-2
Conventional Wastewater Treatment Facilities 5-3
Stabilization Ponds 5-4
Natural Systems for Wastewater Treatment 5-5
Man-Made Wetlands 5-6
Nutrient Removal 5-7
Sludge Treatment and Disposal 5-8
Disinfection of Wastewater Effluents 5-9

Chapter 6
Laboratory Design, Sampling, and Flow Monitoring General 6-1
Laboratory Design 6-2
Sampling and Analysis 6-3
Flow Monitoring 6-4

Chapter 7
Treatment Process Selection Overview 7-1
Site Visitation 7-2
Local Resources 7-3
Economic Considerations 7-4
Health Considerations 7-5
Aesthetic Considerations 7-6
Safety Considerations 7-7
Access/Security Considerations 7-8
Comparison of Treatment Processes 7-9

Chapter 8
Design References and Examples General 8-1
Military Design Manuals 8-2
National Small Flows Clearinghouse (NSFC) Publications 8-3
Wastewater Design Manuals and Texts 8-4
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 8-5
Wastewater Design Criteria and Example Matrices 8-6
Additional Design Examples 8-7

Chapter 9
General Wastewater System Design Deficiencies General 9-1
Overall Considerations 9-2
Conventional Design 9-3
Preliminary Unit Processes 9-4
Primary Treatment Unit Process 9-5
Secondary Treatment Unit Processes 9-6
Sludge Dewatering 9-7
Non-Conventional Plants 9-8
Land Application 9-9
Sludge Drying and Disposal 9-10
Sewer Collection Systems 9-11
Lift Stations 9-12

Chapter 10
Sludge Disposal General 10-1
Definitions 10-2
Management Standards 10-3
Toxic Metal Regulations 10-4
Effect of Land Application 10-5
Pathogen and Vector Attraction Reduction 10-6
Exclusions 10-7
Land Application Pollutant Limits 10-8
Land Application Management Practices 10-9
Surface Disposal Pollutant Limits 10-10
Pathogens and Vector Attraction Reduction 10-11
Pathogen Treatment Processes 10-12
Septage Applied to Agricultural Land, Forests, or Reclamation Sites 10-13
Wastewater Scum 10-14
Composting Methods 10-15
Composting Additives/Amendments/Bulking Agents 10-16
Equipment 10-17
Guidance 10-18

Total 7 MB 200 Page
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Guidelines To Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

2010-03-10T07:27:00.000-08:00

SECTION 1 - SAFETY1

SECTION 2 - THE TIG PROCESS2
2-1.What Is TIG2
2-2.GTAW (TIG) Connections 2
2-3.TIG Advantages 3
2-4.TIG Disadvantages 3
2-5.AC Sine Wave 4
2-6.Zero Crossover Area 4
2-7.Squarewave Imposed Over A Sinewave 5
2-8.Conventional Squarewave AC 5

SECTION 3 - ARC SHAPING CAPABILITIES 6
3-1.Arc Starting Methods 6
3-2.Balance Control 6
3-3.AC Frequency Adjustment Control 7
3-4.Amperage Adjust Control 7
3-5.Frequency Adjustment Control - 60 Hz8
3-6.Frequency Adjustment Control - 200 Hz8
3-7.Suggested Inverter Power Source Starting Parameters For Various Alumunium joints
3-8.Suggested Inverter Power Source Starting Parameters For Various

SECTION 4 - TUNGSTEN SELECTION AND PREPARATION11
4-1.Safety Information And Selecting Tungsten Electrodes 11
4-2.Selecting A Tungsten Electrode 11
4-3.Proper Tungsten Preparation 11
4-4.More About Tungsten Preparation 12
4-5.Tungsten Shape For AC Sine Wave & Conventional Squarewave 13
4-6.Tungsten Shape For Inverter AC & DC 13

SECTION 5 - TIG SHIELDING GASES 14
5-1.TIG Shielding Gases 14
5-2.Argon vs. Helium 14
5-3.Argon/Helium Mixes 15

SECTION 6 - GUIDELINES FOR GTAW WELDING (TIG) 16
6-1.Lift-Arc And HF TIG Start Procedures 16

20 pages 2.6 Mb
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ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING CATHODIC PROTECTION

2010-03-05T08:01:00.000-08:00

Section 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope. ........................... 1
1.2 Cancellation. ........................ 1
1.3 Related Technical Documents. ................ 1
Section 2 CATHODIC PROTECTION CONCEPTS
2.1 Corrosion as an Electrochemical Process. .......... 3
2.1.1 Driving Force. ....................... 3
2.1.2 The Electrochemical Cell. .................. 3
2.1.2.1 Components of the Electrochemical Cell. ........... 3
2.1.2.2 Reactions in an Electrochemical Cell. ............ 3
2.2 The Electrochemical Basis for Cathodic Protection. ...... 4
2.2.1 Potentials Required for Cathodic Protection. ........ 4
2.3 Practical Application of Cathodic Protection. ........ 5
2.3.1 When Cathodic Protection Should Be Considered. ....... 5
2.3.1.1 Where Feasible. ....................... 5
2.3.1.2 When Indicated By Experience. ................ 5
2.3.1.3 As Required By Regulation. ................. 5
2.3.2 Functional Requirements for Cathodic Protection ....... 8
2.3.2.1 Continuity. ......................... 8
2.3.2.2 Electrolyte. ........................ 8
2.3.2.3 Source of Current. ..................... 8
2.3.2.4 Connection to Structure. .................. 8
2.4 Sacrificial Anode Systems. ................. 8
2.4.1 Anode Materials. ...................... 9
2.4.2 Connection to Structure. .................. 10
2.4.3 Other Requirements. ..................... 10
2.5 Impressed Current Systems. ................. 10
2.5.1 Anode Materials. ...................... 10
2.5.2 Direct Current Power Source. ................ 10
2.5.3 Connection to Structure. .................. 10
2.5.4 Other Requirements. ..................... 11

Section 3 CRITERIA FOR CATHODIC PROTECTION
3.1 Introduction. ........................ 13
3.2 Electrical Criteria. .................... 13
3.3 Interpretation of Structure-to-Electrolyte
Potential Readings. ..................... 13
3.3.1 National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE)Standard RP-01-69. ......... 13
3.3.1.1 Criteria for Steel. ..................... 15
3.3.1.2 Criteria for Aluminum. ................... 15
3.3.1.3 Criteria for Copper. .................... 15
3.3.1.4 Criteria for Dissimilar Metal Structures. .......... 15
3.3.2 Other Electrical Criteria. ................. 15
3.3.2.1 Criteria for Lead. ..................... 16
3.3.2.2 NACE RP-02-85. ....................... 16
3.4 Failure Rate Analysis. ................... 16
3.5 Nondestructive Testing of Facility. ............. 16
3.5.1 Visual Analysis. ...................... 16
3.6 Consequences of Underprotection. .............. 17
3.7 Consequences of Overprotection. ............... 18
3.7.1 Coating Disbondment. .................... 18
3.7.2 Hydrogen Embrittlement. ........... ........ 18

Section 4 CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEM DESIGN PRINCIPLES
4.1 Introduction. ........................ 19
4.2 General Design Procedures. ................. 19
4.2.1 Drawings and Specifications. ................ 19
4.2.1.1 Drawings and Specifications for the Structure to be Protected. ...... 19
4.2.1.2 Site Drawings. ....................... 19
4.2.2 Field Surveys. ....................... 20
4.2.2.1 Water Analysis. ....................... 20
4.2.2.2 Soil Characteristics. .................... 20
4.2.2.3 Current Requirement Tests. ................. 21
4.2.2.4 Location of Other Structures in the Area. .......... 22
4.2.2.5 Availability of ac Power. .................. 22
4.2.3 Current Requirements. .................... 22
4.2.4 Choice of Sacrificial or Impressed Current System. ...... 22
4.2.5 Basic Design Procedure for Sacrificial Anode Systems. ... 23
4.2.6 Basic Design Procedure for Impressed Current Systems. .... 24
4.2.6.1 Total Current Determination. ................ 24
4.2.6.2 Total Resistance Determination. ............... 26
4.2.6.3 Voltage and Rectifier Determination. ............ 27
4.2.7 Analysis of Design Factors. ................. 28
4.3 Determination of Field Data. ................ 28
4.3.1 Determination of Electrolyte Resistivity .......... 29
4.3.1.1 In Soils. .......................... 29
4.3.1.2 Liquids. .......................... 29
4.3.2 Chemical Analysis of the Environment ............ 31
4.3.2.1 pH. ............................. 31
4.3.3 Coating Conductance. .................... 31
4.3.3.1 Short Line Method. ..................... 33
4.3.3.2 Long Line Method. ...................... 33
4.3.4 Continuity Testing. ..................... 35
4.3.4.1 Method 1. .......................... 35
4.3.4.2 Method 2. .......................... 35
4.3.4.3 Method 3. .......................... 35
4.3.5 Insulation Testing. ..................... 35
4.3.5.1 Buried Structures. ..................... 35
4.3.5.2 Aboveground Structures. ................... 38
4.4 Corrosion Survey Checklist. ................. 38

Section 5 PRECAUTIONS FOR CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEM DESIGN
5.1 Introduction. ........................ 39
5.2 Excessive Currents and Voltages. .............. 39
5.2.1 Interference. ........................ 39
5.2.1.1 Detecting Interference. ................... 41
5.2.1.2 Control of Interference - Anode Bed Location. ........ 43
5.2.1.3 Control of Interference - Direct Bonding. .......... 43
5.2.1.4 Control of Interference - Resistive Bonding. ........ 45
5.2.1.5 Control of Interference - Sacrificial Anodes. ........ 47
5.2.2 Effects of High Current Density. .............. 47
5.2.3 Effects of Electrolyte pH. ................. 47
5.3 Hazards Associated with Cathodic Protection. ........ 49
5.3.1 Explosive Hazards. ..................... 49
5.3.2 Bonding for Electrical Safety. ............... 49
5.3.3 Induced Alternating Currents. . ............... 50

Section 6 IMPRESSED CURRENT SYSTEM
6.1 Advantages of Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Systems. .... 53
6.2 Determination of Circuit Resistance. ............ 53
6.2.1 Anode-to-Electrolyte Resistance. .............. 53
6.2.1.1 Effect on System Design and Performance. .......... 53
6.2.1.2 Calculation of Anode-to-Electrolyte Resistance ....... 54
6.2.1.3 Basic Equations ....................... 54
6.2.1.4 Simplified Expressions for Common Situations. ........ 55
6.2.1.5 Field Measurement. ..................... 57
6.2.1.6 Effect of Backfill. ..................... 58
6.2.2 Structure-to-Electrolyte Resistance. ............ 59
6.2.3 Connecting Cable Resistance. ................ 59
6.2.4 Resistance of Connections and Splices. ........... 59
6.3 Determination of Power Supply Requirements. ......... 59
6.4 Selection of Power Supply Type. ............... 60
6.4.1 Rectifiers. ......................... 60
6.4.2 Thermoelectric Generators. ................. 60
6.4.3 Solar. ........................... 60
6.4.4 Batteries. ......................... 60
6.4.5 Generators. ......................... 60
6.5 Rectifier Selection. .................... 60
6.5.1 Rectifier Components. .................... 61
6.5.1.1 Transformer Component. ................... 61
6.5.1.2 Rectifying Elements. .................... 61
6.5.1.3 Overload Protection. .................... 61
6.5.1.4 Meters. ........................... 63
6.5.2 Standard Rectifier Types .................. 63
6.5.2.1 Single-Phase Bridge. .................... 63
6.5.2.2 Single-Phase Center Tap. .................. 63
6.5.2.3 Three-Phase Bridge. ..................... 63
6.5.2.4 Three-Phase Wye. ...................... 65
6.5.2.5 Special Rectifier Types ................... 65
6.5.3 Rectifier Selection and Specifications. ........... 68
6.5.3.1 Available Features. ..................... 69
6.5.3.2 Air Cooled Versus Oil Immersed. ............... 69
6.5.3.3 Selecting ac Voltage. .................... 70
6.5.3.4 dc Voltage and Current Output. ............... 70
6.5.3.5 Filters. .......................... 70
6.5.3.6 Explosion Proof Rectifiers. ................. 70
6.5.3.7 Lightning Arresters. .................... 71
6.5.3.8 Selenium Versus Silicon Stacks. ............... 71
6.5.3.9 Other Options. ....................... 71
6.5.3.10 Rectifier Alternating Current Rating. ............ 71
6.6 Anodes for Impressed Current Systems. ............ 73
6.6.1 Graphite Anodes. ...................... 74
6.6.1.1 Specifications. ....................... 74
6.6.1.2 Available Sizes. ...................... 74
6.6.1.3 Characteristics. ...................... 77
6.6.1.4 Operation. ......................... 77
6.6.2 High Silicon Cast Iron. ................... 78
6.6.3 High Silicon Chromium Bearing Cast Iron (HSCBCI). .... 78
6.6.3.1 Specifications. ....................... 78
6.6.3.2 Available Sizes. ...................... 79
6.6.3.3 Operation. ......................... 79
6.6.4 Aluminum. .......................... 79
6.6.5 Platinum. .......................... 79
6.6.6 Platinized Anodes. ..................... 79
6.6.6.1 Types. ........................... 90
6.6.6.2 Operation. ......................... 91
6.6.7 Alloyed Lead. ........................ 91
6.7 Other System Components. .................. 91
6.7.1 Connecting Cables. ..................... 91
6.7.1.1 Factors to be Considered. .................. 91
6.7.1.2 Insulation. ......................... 92
6.7.1.3 Recommended Cables for Specific Applications. ........ 93
6.7.1.4 Economic Wire Size. ..................... 93
6.7.2 Wire Splices and Connections. ................ 94
6.7.3 Test Stations. ....................... 96
6.7.4 Bonds. ........................... 96
6.7.5 Insulating Joints. ................ ..... 96

Section 7 SACRIFICIAL ANODE SYSTEM DESIGN
7.1 Theory of Operation. ................... . 113
7.1.1 Advantages of Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection Systems. .... . 113
7.1.2 Disadvantages of Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection Systems. ..... . 113
7.2 Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection System DesignProcedures. ...... . 113
7.3 Determination of Current Required for Protection. ...................... . 114
7.4 Determination of Anode Output. .............. . 114
7.4.1 Simplified Method for Common Situations. ......... . 114
7.4.2 Determination of Output Using Anode-to-Electrolyte Resistance. ... . 114
7.4.2.1 Calculation of Anode-to-Electrolyte Resistance. ...... . 114
7.4.2.2 Determination of Structure-to-Electrolyte Resistance. .. . 115
7.4.2.3 Connecting Cable Resistance. ............... . 115
7.4.2.4 Resistance of Connections and Splices. .......... . 115
7.4.2.5 Total Circuit Resistance. ................. . 115
7.4.2.6 Anode-to-Structure Potential. ............... . 115
7.4.2.7 Anode Output Current. ................... . 115
7.4.3 Field Measurement of Anode Output. ............ . 116
7.5 Determination of Number of Anodes Required. ........ . 116
7.6 Determination of Anode Life. ............... . 116
7.7 Seasonal Variation in Anode Output. ............ . 117
7.8 Sacrificial Anode Materials ................ . 117
7.8.1 Magnesium. ........................ . 117
7.8.1.1 Composition. ....................... . 118
7.8.1.2 Anode Efficiency. ..................... . 118
7.8.1.3 Potentials. ........................ . 119
7.8.1.4 Sizes. .......................... . 119
7.8.1.5 Current Output. ...................... . 119
7.8.1.6 Backfill. ......................... . 119
7.8.2 Zinc. ........................... . 119
7.8.2.1 Composition. ....................... . 125
7.8.2.2 Anode Efficiency. ..................... . 125
7.8.2.3 Potentials. ........................ . 125
7.8.2.4 Sizes. .......................... . 126
7.8.2.5 Current Output. ...................... . 126
7.8.2.6 Backfill. ......................... . 126
7.8.3 Aluminum. ......................... . 126
7.8.3.1 Composition. ....................... . 127
7.8.3.2 Anode Efficiency. ..................... . 127
7.8.3.3 Potentials. ........................ . 127
7.8.3.4 Sizes. .......................... . 127
7.8.3.5 Current Output. ...................... . 127
7.9 Other System Components .................. . 127
7.9.1 Connecting Wires. ..................... . 127
7.9.1.1 Determination of Connecting Wire Size and Type. ...... . 133
7.9.2 Connections and Splices. ................. . 134
7.9.3 Bonds and Insulating Joints. ............... . 134
7.9.4 Test Station Location and Function. ............ . 134
7.9.5 Backfill. ......................... . 135

Section 8 TYPICAL CATHODIC PROTECTION
8.1 Diagrams of Cathodic Protection Systems. ......... . 137

Section 9 CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEM DESIGN EXAMPLES
9.1 Introduction. ....................... . 155
9.2 Elevated Steel Water Tank. ................ . 155
9.2.1 Design Data ........................ . 156
9.2.2 Computations ....................... . 156
9.3 Elevated Water Tank (Where Ice is Expected). ....... . 173
9.3.1 Design Data ........................ . 176
9.3.2 Computations ....................... . 176
9.4 Steel Gas Main. ...................... . 177
9.4.1 Design Data ........................ . 180
9.4.2 Computations ....................... . 180
9.5 Gas Distribution System. ................. . 184
9.5.1 Design Data ........................ . 185
9.5.2 Computations ....................... . 185

Page
9.6 Black Iron, Hot Water Storage Tank. ............ . 187
9.6.1 Design Data ........................ . 188
9.6.2 Computations ....................... . 188
9.7 Underground Steel Storage Tank. .............. . 190
9.7.1 Design Data ........................ . 190
9.7.2 Computations ....................... . 192
9.8 Heating Distribution System. ............... . 192
9.8.1 Design Data ........................ . 192
9.8.2 Computations ....................... . 193
9.8.3 Groundbed Design ..................... . 194
9.8.4 Rectifier Location. .................... . 195
9.9 Aircraft Multiple Hydrant Refueling System. ........ . 195
9.9.1 Design Data ........................ . 195
9.9.2 Computations. ....................... . 196
9.10 Steel Sheet Piling in Seawater (Galvanic nodes). ..... . 199
9.10.1 Design Data ........................ . 199
9.10.2 Computations ....................... . 201
9.11 Steel Sheet Piling in Seawater (Impressed Current
9.11.1 Design Data. ....................... . 203
9.11.2 Computations ....................... . 203
9.12 Steel H Piling in Seawater (Galvanic Anodes). ....... . 207
9.12.1 Design Data ........................ . 208
9.12.2 Computations ....................... . 208
9.13 Steel H Piling in Seawater (Impressed Current). ...... . 210
9.13.1 Design Data ........................ . 210
9.13.2 Computations ....................... . 210

Section 10 INSTALLATION AND CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
10.1 Factors to Consider. ................... . 213
10.2 Planning of Construction. ................. . 213
10.3 Pipeline Coating. ..................... . 213
10.3.1 Over-the-Ditch Coating. .................. . 213
10.3.2 Yard Applied Coating. ................... . 213
10.3.3 Joint and Damage Repair. ................. . 214
10.3.4 Inspection. ........................ . 214
10.4 Coatings for Other Structures. .............. . 214
10.5 Pipeline Installation. .................. . 214
10.5.1 Casings. ......................... . 214
10.5.2 Foreign Pipeline Crossings. ................ . 215
10.5.3 Insulating Joints. .................... . 215
10.5.4 Bonds. .......................... . 216
10.6 Electrical Connections. .................. . 216
10.7 Test Stations. ...................... . 216
10.8 Sacrificial Anode Installation. .............. . 216
10.8.1 Vertical. ......................... . 216
10.8.2 Horizontal. ........................ . 217
10.9 Impressed Current Anode Installation. ........... . 217
10.9.1 Vertical. ......................... . 219
10.9.2 Horizontal. ........................ . 219
10.9.3 Deep Anode Beds. ..................... . 219
10.9.4 Other Anode Types. .................... . 225
10.9.5 Connections. ....................... . 225
Page
10.10 Impressed Current Rectifier Installation. ......... . 225
Section 11 SYSTEM CHECKOUT AND INITIAL ADJUSTMENTS
11.1 Introduction. ....................... . 229
11.2 Initial Potential Survey. ................. . 229
11.3 Detection and Correction of Interference. ......... . 229
11.4 Adjustment of Impressed Current Systems. ......... . 229
11.4.1 Uneven Structure-To-Electrolyte Potentials. ........ . 229
11.4.2 Rectifier Voltage and Current Capacity. .......... . 230
11.5 Adjustment of Sacrificial Anode Systems. ......... . 230
11.5.1 Low Anode Current Levels. ................. . 230
11.5.2 Inadequate Protection at Designed Current Levels ..... . 230

Section 12 MAINTAINING CATHODIC PROTECTION
12.1 Introduction. ....................... . 231
12.2 Required Periodic Monitoring and Maintenance. ....... . 231
12.3 Design Data Required for System Maintenance. ....... . 231
12.3.1 Drawings. ......................... . 231
12.3.2 System Data. ....................... . 231
12.3.2.1 Design Potentials. .................... . 231
12.3.2.2 Current Output. ...................... . 231
12.3.2.3 System Settings and Potential Readings. .......... . 231
12.3.2.4 Rectifier Instructions. .................. . 232
12.4 Basic Maintenance Requirements. .............. . 232
12.5 Guidance for Maintenance ................. . 232
12.5.1 Agency Maintenance and Operations Manuals. ........ . 232
12.5.2 DOT Regulations. ..................... . 235
12.5.3 NACE Standards. ...................... . 235

Section 13 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
13.1 Importance of Economic Analysis. ............. . 237
13.2 Economic Analysis Process. ................ . 237
13.2.1 Define the Objective. ................... . 237
13.2.2 Generate Alternatives. .................. . 238
13.2.3 Formulate Assumptions. .................. . 238
13.2.4 Determine Costs and Benefits. ............... . 238
13.2.4.1 Costs. .......................... . 238
13.2.4.2 Benefits. ......................... . 239
13.2.5 Compare Costs and Benefits and Rank Alternatives. .... . 239
13.2.6 Perform Sensitivity Analysis. ............... . 239
13.3 Design of Cathodic Protection Systems. .......... . 239
13.4 Economic Analysis - Example 1 ............... . 240
13.4.1 Objective. ........................ . 240
13.4.2 Alternatives ....................... . 240
13.4.3 Assumptions ........................ . 240
13.4.4 Cost/Benefit Analysis ................... . 240
13.4.4.1 Cost - Alternative 1--Steel Line Without Cathodic Protection. ... . 240
13.4.4.2 Cost - Alternative 2--Steel Line with Cathodic Protection. ......... . 242
13.4.4.3 Cost - Alternative 3--Plastic Line. ............ . 242
13.4.4.4 Benefits. ......................... . 243
13.4.5 Compare Costs/Benefits .................. . 243
13.5 Economic Analysis - Example 2 ............... . 243
13.5.1 Objective. ........................ . 243
13.5.2 Alternative ........................ . 243
13.5.3 Assumptions ........................ . 243
13.5.4 Cost/Benefit Analysis ................... . 244
13.5.4.1 Cost - Alternative 1--Steel Line Without Cathodic Protection. ... . 244
13.5.4.2 Cost - Alternative 2--Steel Line With Cathodic Protection. ....... . 245
13.5.4.3 Benefits. ......................... . 246
13.5.5 Compare Costs/Benefits .................. . 246
13.5.6 Conclusions and Recommendations. ............. . 247
13.6 Economic Analysis - Example 3 ............... . 247
13.6.1 Objective. ........................ . 247
13.6.2 Alternatives ....................... . 247
13.6.3 Assumptions ........................ . 247
13.6.4 Cost/Benefit Analysis ................... . 247
13.6.4.1 Cost - Alternative 1--Impressed Current Cathodic Protection. ... . 247
13.6.4.2 Cost - Alternative 2--Galvanic Anode System. ....... . 248
13.6.5 Compare Costs/Benefits .................. . 249
13.7 Economic Analysis - Example 4 ............... . 249
13.7.1 Objective ......................... . 249
13.7.2 Alternatives ....................... . 249
13.7.3 Assumptions ........................ . 249
13.7.4 Cost/Benefit Analysis ................... . 249
13.7.4.1 Cost - Alternative 1--Cathodic Protection System Maintenance Continued. .. . 249
13.7.4.2 Cost - Alternative 2--Cathodic Protection System Maintenance Discontinued. . . 250
13.7.5 Compare Benefits and Costs ................ . 251
13.8 Economic Analysis Goal. .................. . 251

Section 14 CORROSION COORDINATING COMMITTEE PARTICIPATION
14.1 Introduction. ....................... . 253
14.2 Functions of Corrosion Coordinating Committees. ...... . 253
14.3 Operation of the Committees. ............... . 253
14.4 Locations of Committees. ................. . 253
APPENDIX
APPENDIX A UNDERGROUND CORROSION SURVEY CHECKLIST .......... . 255
B ECONOMIC LIFE GUIDELINES ................. . 265
C PROJECT YEAR DISCOUNT FACTORS ............... . 267
D PRESENT VALUE FORMULAE .................. . 269
E DOT REGULATIONS ...................... . 271

319 pages 2.2 MB

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Steel Design for construction

2010-03-01T07:10:00.000-08:00

1 INTRODUCTION
2 PLANNING FOR CONSTRUCTION

2.1 The need to plan for construction
2.2 General principles
2.3 Management of the design process
2.4 Further reading

3 DESIGNING FOR CONSTRUCTION
3.1 Design principles
3.2 Frame types
3.3 Floor systems
3.4 Connections
3.5 Bolts
3.6 Welding and inspection
3.7 Corrosion protection
3.8 Interfaces
3.9 Further reading

4 SITE PRACTICE
4.1 General features of site practice
4.2 Erection equipment and techniques
4.3 Case study - Senator House
4.4 Further reading

5 HEALTH AND SAFETY - THE CDM REGULATIONS
5.1 The Regulations
5.2 Duties under CDM
5.3 Designer's responsibilities
5.4 Designer's response
5.5 Further reading

6 INTERFACES WITH STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
6.1 Foundations
6.2 Concrete and masonry elements
6.3 Timber elements
6.4 Composite beams
6.5 Precast concrete floors
6.6 Crane girders and rails
6.7 Cold formed sections
6.8 Further reading

7 INTERFACES WITH NON-STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
7.1 Services
7.2 Lift installation
7.3 Metal cladding
7.4 Curtain walling
7.5 Glazing
7.6 Brickwork restraints
7.7 Surface protection
7.8 Further reading

8 TOLERANCES
8.1 Reasons for tolerances test plan
8.2 Inspection and
8.3 Further reading

9 REFERENCES
10 CODES AND STANDARDS
APPENDIX A - Additional information
A.1 Introduction
A.2 Typical tonnages for various types of building
A.3 Case study references
A.4 Potential defects

Total 141 pages 2.5 MB

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