Handbook of Industrial Drying

1.Fundamental Aspects
1.1 Introduction
1.2 External Conditions (Process 1)
1.2.1 Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium and Enthalpy for a Pure Substance Vapor–Pressure Curve
1.2.1.1 The Clausius–Clapeyron Equation
1.2.1.2 Enthalpy
1.2.1.3 Heat Capacity
1.2.2 Vapor–Gas Mixtures
1.2.3 Unsaturated Vapor–Gas Mixtures: Psychrometry in Relation to Drying
1.2.3.1 Dry Bulb Temperature
1.2.3.2 Dew
1.2.3.3 Humid Volume
1.2.3.4 Enthalpy
1.2.4 Enthalpy–Humidity Charts
1.2.4.1 Adiabatic Saturation Curves
1.2.4.2 Wet Bulb Temperature
1.2.5 Types of Psychrometric Representation
1.3 Internal Conditions (Process 2)
1.3.1 Moisture Content of Solids
1.3.2 Moisture Isotherms
1.3.2.1 Sorption–Desorption Hysteresis
1.3.2.2 Temperature Variations and Enthalpy of Binding
1.3.3 Determination of Sorption Isotherms
1.4 Mechanism of Drying
1.4.1 Characteristic Drying Rate Curve
1.5 Classification and Selection of Dryers
1.5.1 Heating Methods
1.5.1.1 Convection
1.5.1.2 Conduction
1.5.1.3 Radiation
1.5.2 Temperature and Pressure of Operation
1.5.3 Conveying of Material in Dryer
1.6 Effect of Energy Costs, Safety, and Environmental Factors on Dryer Selection
1.7 Design of Dryers
1.8 Guidelines for Dryer Selection
1.9 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
Nomenclature

2.Experimental Techniques in Drying
CONTENTS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Determination of Moisture Content
2.2.1 Determination of the Moisture Content of Solid Materials
2.2.1.1 Direct Methods
2.2.1.2 Indirect Methods
2.2.2 Determination of Moisture Content of Gases
2.3 Experimental Determination of the Sorption Equilibrium Characteristics of Materials
2.3.1 Interpretation of the Equilibrium Moisture Content of Materials
2.3.2 Interpretation of the Equilibrium Vapor
2.3.3 Characteristic Functions of Sorption Equilibrium
2.3.3.1 Measuring Techniques Carried Out at a Constant Vapor Pressure
2.3.3.2 Measuring Techniques Based on Developing an Equilibrium Vapor Pressure
2.3.4 Measuring Techniques at Constant Vapor Pressure
2.3.5 Measuring Techniques Based on Developing an Equilibrium Vapor Pressure
2.4 Techniques and Equipment of the Investigation of Drying Kinetics
2.4.1 Description of the Measuring Equipment
2.4.2 Drying Experiments (Lumped Approach)
2.4.3 Techniques of Investigation with Distributed Parameters
2.4.3.1 Determination of the Thermal Conductivity and Diffusivity of Wet Materials
2.4.3.2 Determination of the Mass Diffusivity and Moisture Conductivity
Coefficient of Wet Materials
2.4.3.3 Determination of the Thermal Conductivity and Effective Diffusivity
Coefficient of the Dry Material
2.5 Drying of Fixed and Moving Beds
2.5.1 Determination of the Volumetric Heat Transfer Coefficient
2.5.2 Determination of the Heat and Mass Transfer Coefficients in Through Circulation Drying
2.6 Conclusion
Nomenclature
References

3.Basic Process Calculations and Simulations in Drying
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Basic Classes of Models and Generic Dryer
3.4 General Rules for a Dryer Model Formulation
3.4.1 Mass and Energy Balances
3.4.1.1 Mass Balances
3.4.1.2 Energy balances
3.4.2 Constitutive Equations
3.4.2.1 Characteristic Drying Curve
3.4.2.2 Kinetic Equation (e.g., Thin-Layer Equations)
3.4.3 Auxiliary Relationships
3.4.3.1 Humid Gas Properties and Psychrometric Calculations
3.4.3.2 Relations between Absolute Humidity, Relative Humidity,
Temperature, and Enthalpy of Humid Gas
3.4.3.3 Calculations Involving Dew-Point Temperature, Adiabatic-Saturation
Temperature, and Wet-Bulb Temperature
3.4.3.4 Construction of Psychrometric Charts
3.4.3.5 Wet Solid Properties
3.4.4 Property Databases
3.5 General Remarks on Solving Models
3.6 Basic Models of Dryers in Steady State
3.6.1 Input–Output Models
3.6.2 Distributed Parameter Models
3.6.2.1 Cocurrent Flow
3.6.2.2 Countercurrent Flow
3.6.2.3 Cross-Flow
3.7 Distributed Parameter Models for the Solid
3.7.1 One-Dimensional Models
3.7.1.1 Nonshrinking Solids
3.7.1.2 Shrinking Solids
3.7.2 Two- and Three-Dimensional Models
3.7.3 Simultaneous Solving DPM of Solids and Gas Phase
3.8 Models for Batch Dryers
3.8.1 Batch-Drying Oven
3.8.2 Batch Fluid Bed Drying
3.8.3 Deep Bed Drying
3.9 Models for Semicontinuous Dryers
3.10 Shortcut Methods for Dryer Calculation
3.10.1 Drying Rate from Predicted Kinetics
3.10.1.1 Free Moisture
3.10.1.2 Bound Moisture
3.10.2 Drying Rate from Experimental Kinetics
3.10.2.1 Batch Drying
3.10.2.2 Continuous Drying
3.11 Software Tools for Dryer Calculations
3.12 Conclusion
Nomenclature
References

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