Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook 5th

1: General Information, 1

Basic formulas 2

Mathematics—areas 3

Mathematics—surfaces and volumes 4

Cables and Ropes 5

Estimating strength of cable 5

Find the working strength of Manila rope 5

How large should drums and sheaves be for various types of wire rope? 5

Find advantages of block and tackle, taking into account pull out friction 6

Safe loads for wire rope 6

Stress in guy wires 7

Strength and weight of popular wire rope 9

Measuring the diameter of wire rope 9

Wire rope: ?eld troubles and their causes 9

Capacity of drums 11

Belts and Shafts  11

Determine length of a V-belt 11

Calculate stress in shaft key 12

Calculate V-belt length using simple equation 12

Estimate the horsepower that can be transmitted by a shaft 13

How to estimate length of material contained in roll 13

Convenient anti-freeze chart for winterizing cooling systems 13

How to determine glycol requirements to bring a system to a desired temperature protection level 14

Weight in pounds of round steel shafting 14

Properties of shafting 15

Tap drills and clearance drills for machine screws 16

Common nails 17

Drill sizes for pipe taps 17

Carbon steel—color and approximate temperature 17

Bolting dimensions for raised face weld neck ?anges 18

Steel ?tting dimensions 19

ANSI forged steel ?anges  20

Color codes for locating underground utilities 21

Approximate angle of repose for sloping sides of excavations 21

Trench shoring—minimum requirements  22

Reuniting separated mercury in thermometers 23

Typical wire resistance 23

How to cut odd-angle long radius elbows  24

How to read land descriptions 25

Size an air receiver for engine starting 27

Wind chill chart 28

Pipeline Pigging   29

Sizing plates  29

Caliper pigging 29

Cleaning after construction 29

Flooding for hydrotest 30

Dewatering and drying 30

Estimate volume of onshore oil spill 30

Estimating spill volume on water  32

2: Construction, 34

Project Scoping Data  35

Project scoping data worksheet for major facilities 35

Right-of-Way 36

How to determine the crop acreage included in a right-of-way strip 36

Clearing and grading right-of-way: labor/equipment considerations  36

Estimating manhours for removing trees  37

Estimating manhours for removing tree stumps 37

Clearing and grading right-of-way 38

Ditching  39

How many cubic yards of excavation in a mile of ditch?  39

Shrinkage and expansion of excavated and compacted soil 39

Ditching and trenching: labor/equipment considerations  39

Concrete Work  40

How to approximate sacks of cement needed to ?ll a form 40

What you should know about mixing and ?nishing concrete 40

Pipe Laying  40

How to determine the degrees of bend in a pipe that must ?t a ditch calling for a bend in both horizontal and vertical planes 40

How to bend pipe to ?t ditch—sags, overbends and combination bends 41

Pipe bending computations made with hand-held calculator  41

Calculate maximum bend on cold pipe 46

Determine length of a pipe bend  47

Length of pipe in arc subtended by any angle 47

Average pipelay table—Underground  48

Average pipelay table—On supports 49

Allowable pipe span between supports 49

How engineers make pipe ?t the ditch 50

Pipe Lowering  53

How to lower an existing pipeline that is still in service  53

Welding  56

When should steel be preheated before welding?  56

Welding and brazing temperatures 57

Mechanical properties of pipe welding rods 57

Lens shade selector 58

Pipeline Welding  58

How many welds will the average welder make per hour?  67

How much welding rod is required for a mile of schedule 40 pipeline?  67

How many pounds of electrodes are required per weld on line pipe?  67

Welding criteria permit safe and effective pipeline repair  68

Cross country pipeline—vertical down electrode consumption, pounds of electrode per joint 74

Guidelines for a successful directional crossing bid package 74

3: Pipe Design, 83

Steel pipe design  84

Properties of pipe 89

Length of pipe in bends 91

Calculation of pipe bends  92

Spacing of pipe supports  94

American standard taper pipe threads 96

British standard taper pipe threads 97

Normal engagement between male and female threads to make tight joints 98

Hand-held computer calculates pipe weight, contents,velocity 98

Formulas and constants of value in solving problems relating to tubular goods 101

How to calculate the contraction or expansion of a pipeline 102

Estimate weight of pipe in metric tons per kilometer 102

How to ?nd pipe weight from outside diameter and wall thickness  103

What is the maximum allowable length of unsupported line pipe? 103

Identify the schedule number of pipe by directmeasurement 103

Determine buoyancy of bare steel pipe 104

Determine buoyancy of bare and concrete coated steel pipe in water and mud 104

Weights of piping materials 105

Allowable working pressure for carbon steel pipe  105

Find the stress in pipe wall due to internal pressure 106

How to calculate stress in above/below ground transition 107

How to identify the series number of ?anged ?ttings  110

Dimensions of three-diameter ells with tangents  110

Polypipe design data  111

4: Electrical Design, 114

Electrical design  115

Hazardous locations 116

NEMA Enclosure Types  117

Size portable electric generators 118

Typical wattages for tools and applicances 119

Knockout dimensions  119

National Electrical Code Tables 120

Electrical formulas 124

Full load currents—single phase transformers 124

Full load currents—three phase transformers  125

Motor controller sizes 125

Voltage drop on circuits using 600V copper conductors in steel conduit 126

Determine the most economical size for electric power conductors  126

How to ?nd the resistance and weight of copper wires 127

What you should remember about electrical formulas 127

How to calculate microwave hops on level ground 127

For quick determination of the horsepower per ampere for induction motors (3 phase) at different voltages 128

Chart gives electric motor horsepower for pumping units 128

Pumping stations  129

Floodlighting Concepts  130

Terms 130

Floodlighting calculations  130

Point-by-point method 130

Beam-lumen method  131

Design procedure 131

Conductor size coversion chart—Metric to AWG  132

5: Hydrostatic Testing, 133

Hydrostatic testing for pipelines 134

Appendix A  140

Volume of water required to ?ll test section 140

Volume required at test pressure  141

Appendix B  142

How to use charts for estimating the amount of pressure change for a change in test water temperature 142

Compressibility factor for water 145

6: Pipeline Drying, 146

Pipeline Dewatering, Cleaning, and Drying   147

Dewatering 147

Cleaning pipelines 148

Brush pig run with gas 148

Brush pig run with liquid  148

Internal sand blasting  148

Chemical cleaning 149

Pipeline drying 149

Moisture content of air 151

Commissioning petrochemical pipelines 153

Vacuum drying 156


7: Control Valves, 159

Control valve sizing formulas  160

Sizing control valves for thruput 164

Control valve selection 169

Relief Valve Sizing, Selection, Installation and Testing   171

Rupture disc sizing 175

Rupture disc sizing using the resistance to ?ow method (KR) 176

Variable ori?ce rotary control valves 178

Sizing Valves for Gas and Vapor 180

Basic valve ?ow-capacity coef?cient (Cv)  180

8: Corrosion/Coatings, 185

Hand-held computer determines concrete coating thickness 186

NAPCA speci?cations 188

How much primer for a mile of pipe? 191

How much coal-tar enamel for a mile of pipe? 192

How much wrapping for a mile of pipe?  192

Estimating coating and wrapping materials required per mile of pipe 192

Coef?cient of friction for pipe coating materials 193

Troubleshooting cathodic protection systems: Magnesium anode system  195

Cathodic protection for pipelines  196

Estimate the pounds of sacri?cial anode material required for offshore pipelines  204

Comparison of other reference electrode potentials with that of copper-copper sulfate reference electrode at 25°C  206

Chart aids in calculating ground bed resistance and recti?er power cost 207

How can output of magnesium anodes be predicted?  208

How to determine the ef?ciency of a cathodic protection recti?er  208

How to calculate the voltage drop in ground bed cable quickly 209

What is the most economical size for a recti?er cable?  209

How to estimate the number of magnesium anodes required and their spacing for a bare line or for a corrosion “hot spot” 210

How can resistivity of fresh water be determined from chemical analysis? 210

What will be the resistance to earth of a single graphite anode? 211

How to estimate the monthly power bill for a cathodic protection recti?er  211

What will be the resistance to earth of a group of graphite anodes, in terms of the resistance of a single anode? 211

How can the current output of magnesium rod used for the cathodic protection of heat exchanger shells be predicted?  211

What spacing for test leads to measure current on a pipeline? 211

How many magnesium anodes are needed for supplementary protection to a short-circuited bare casing? 212

Group installation of sacri?cial anodes 212

How can the life of magnesium anodes be predicted?  213

How to ?nd the voltage rating of a recti?er if it is to deliver a given amount of current through a given ground bed (graphite or carbon) 213

Determining current requirements for coated lines 213

Determining current requirements for coated lines  when pipe-to-soil potential values are estimated 213

HVDC effects on pipelines 214

Troubleshooting cathodic protection systems: Recti?er ground bed 218

How to control corrosion at compressor stations 219

Project leak growth 220

Advances in Pipeline Protection  221

Methods of locating coating defects 222

Case histories 225

Estimate the number of squares of tape for pipe coating (machine applied)  226

Estimate the amount of primer required for tape  227

Tape requirements for ?ttings 227

Induced AC Voltages on Pipelines May Present a Serious Hazard 228

Measuring Unwanted Alternating Current in Pipe  230

Minimizing shock hazards on pipelines near HVAC lines 235

9: Gas—General, 237

Know the gas laws 238

Calculate gas properties from a gas analysis 240

Physical properties of selected hydrocarbons and other chemicals and gases  244

Nomograph for calculating density and speci?c volume of gases and vapors 252

Considerations for Selecting Energy Measurement Equipment 253

Facts about methane and its behavior 259

Conversion table for pure methane 263

Categories of natural gas and reserves terminology 264

Glossary of common gas industry terms 265

10: Gas—Compression, 268

Compressors  269

Performance calculations for reciprocating compressors 270

Estimating suction and discharge volume bottle sizes for pulsation control for reciprocating compressors 272

Compression horsepower determination 274

Generalized compressibility factor 276

Nomograph aids in diagnosing compressor cylinder ills  277

Centrifugal Compressor Data   278

Centrifugal compressor performance calculations  278

Nomographs for estimating compressor performance 282

Estimate hp required to compress natural gas 287

Estimate compressor hp where discharge pressure is1,000psi 287

Calculate brake horsepower required to compress gas 288

How to ?nd the size fuel gas line for a compressor station  288

Estimate engine cooling water requirements  289

Estimate fuel requirements for internal combustion engines 289

Estimating fuel requirements for compressor installation  290

11: Gas—Hydraulics, 291

Gas pipeline hydraulics calculations 292

Equivalent lengths for multiple lines based on Panhandle A 293

Determine pressure loss for a low-pressure gas system  294

Nomograph for determining pipe-equivalent factors  295

How much gas is contained in a given line section? 296

How to estimate equivalent length factors for gas lines 296

Estimating comparative capacities of gas pipelines 297

Determination of leakage from gas line using pressure drop method 297

A quick way to determine size of gas gathering lines 298

Energy conversion data for estimating 298

How to estimate time required to get a shut-in test on gas transmission lines and approximate a maximum acceptable pressure loss for new lines  299

How to determine the relationship of capacity increase to investment increase 299

Estimate pipe size requirements for increasing throughput volumes of natural gas  300

Calculate line loss using cross-sectional areas table when testing mains with air or gas  301

Flow of fuel gases in pipelines 302

Calculate the velocity of gas in a pipeline  303

Determining throat pressure in a blow-down system  303

Estimate the amount of gas blown off through a line puncture 304

A practical way to calculate gas ?ow for pipelines  304

How to calculate the weight of gas in a pipeline 305

Estimate average pressure in gas pipeline using up and downstream pressures  305

Chart for determining viscosity of natural gas  306

Flow of gas 306

Multi-phase ?ow  310

Nomograph for calculating Reynolds number for compressible ?ow friction factor for clean steel and wrought iron pipe  315

12: Liquids—General, 318

Determining the viscosity of crude 319

Chart gives API gravity of blends quickly  320

Liquid gravity and density conversion chart 321

Nomograph for calculating viscosities of liquid hydrocarbons at high pressure  321

Calculate viscosity of a blend  323

Calculate gravity of a blend 323

Convert viscosity units 323

Convert speci?c gravity to API gravity 323

Calculate bulk modulus 323

Viscosities of hydrocarbon liquids  324

Nomograph for calculating viscosity of slurries 325

Nomograph for calculating velocity of liquids in pipes 327

Nomograph for calculating velocity of compressible fluids in pipes  327

Nomograph for calculating velocity of liquids in  pipes 328

Derivation of basic ultrasonic ?ow equations  330

How fast does oil move in a pipeline? 332

Estimate the volume of a pipeline per linear foot using the inside diameter 332

What is the line?ll of a given pipe in barrels per mile? 332

Estimate leakage amount through small holes in a pipeline 333

Table gives velocity heads for various pipe diameters and different rates of discharge 334

13: Liquids—Hydraulics, 335

Marine Hose Data  336

CALM system 336

SALM system 336

Tandem system 337

Multi-point mooring system 337

Pressure loss in hose string 339

Pressure drop calculations for rubber hose 341

Examples of pressure drop calculations for rubber hose 341

Typical formulas used for calculating pressure drop and ?ow rates for pipelines 341

Hydraulic gradients 343

Equivalent lengths 346

Series systems 347

Looped systems 348

Calculate pressure loss in annular sections 349

Calculate pressure and temperature loss for viscous crudes =1,000 cP 349

Determine batch injection rate as per enclosure 352

Pressure Loss through Valves and Fittings   353

Representative resistance coef?cients (K) for valves and ?ttings 353

Nomograph for calculating Reynolds number for ?ow of liquids and friction factor for clean steel and wrought iron pipe  359

Nomograph for calculating pressure drop of liquids in lines for turbulent ?ow 361

Drag-Reducing Agents   365

The basics of drag reduction  365

How drag-reducing agents can outweigh looping or boosting 370

How active, passive drag affect DRA injections 376

How to estimate the rate of liquid discharge from a pipe 382

Predict subsurface temperature ranges 382

Sizing pipelines for water ?ow 383

How approximate throughput of a line can be estimated from pipe size 384

Gauge liquid ?ow where no weir or meter is available 384

Estimate crude gathering line throughput for a given pipe diameter  384

How to determine head loss due to friction in ordinary iron pipeline carrying clear water  384

How to size lines, estimate pressure drop and optimum station spacing for crude systems 385

Estimate the optimum working pressures in crude oiltransmission lines  385

How to size crude and products lines for capacity increases 386

How to determine the maximum surge pressure in liquid-?lled pipeline when a main valve is closed suddenly 386

What is the hydrostatic pressure due to a column of oil H feet in height? 386

Transient pressure analysis 387

Tank farm line sizing  396

14: Pumps, 399

Centrifugal pumps 400

Speed torque calculation  412

Pulsation Control for Reciprocating Pumps  413

Key Centrifugal Pump Parameters and How They Impact Your Applications Part 1  421

Key Centrifugal Pump Parameters and How They Impact Your Applications Part 2  426

Estimate the discharge of a centrifugal pump at various speeds  431

How to estimate the head for an average centrifugal pump  431

Find the capacity of reciprocating pump  432

How to estimate the horsepower required to pump at a given rate at a desired discharge pressure  432

Nomograph for determining reciprocating pump capacity 432

Nomograph for determining speci?c speed of pumps  434

Nomograph for determining horsepower requirement of pumps 435

How to select motors for ?eld gathering pumps 435

Reciprocating pumps  436

Understanding the basics of rotary screw pumps  445

15: Measurement, 451

Pipeline ?ow measurement—the new in?uences  452

Liquid measurement ori?ce plate ?ange taps  455

Mass measurement light hydrocarbons 459

Pipeline measurement of supercritical carbon dioxide 460

Gas Measurement  466

Master meter proving ori?ce meters in dense phase ethylene 466

Gas or vapor ?ow measurement—ori?ce plate ?ange taps 473

Properties of gas and vapors 477

Determine required ori?ce diameter for any required differential when the present ori?ce and differential are known in gas measurement 482

Estimate the temperature drop across a regulator 483

Estimate natural gas ?ow rates 483

How to estimate the average pressure differential on the remaining meter runs of a parallel system when one or more runs are shut off 484

Sizing a gas metering run  484

List of typical speci?cations for domestic and commercial natural gas 484

Determine the number of purges for sample cylinders 485

Find the British thermal units (Btu) when the speci?cgravity of a pipeline gas is known 485

Estimate for variations in measurement factors 485

Rules of measurement of gas by ori?ce meter 486

How to measure high pressure gas 486

Four ways to calculate ori?ce ?ow in ?eld 490

Practical maintenance tips for positive displacement meters  493

Sizing headers for meter stations  497

16: Instrumentation, 500

Types of control systems  501

Developments in Pipeline Instrumentation  503

Flow measurements 504

Proving devices 506

Valves 507

Acoustic line break detectors  508

“Smart” pressure sensors  509

Densitometers 510

Pipeline samplers  511

Pipeline monitoring systems 512

Computer systems 513

SCADA systems 515

Cathodic protection 515

System design guidelines  515

Future trends 516

Choosing the Right Technology for Integrated SCADA Communications  517

17: Leak Detection, 522

Pipeline Leak Detection Techniques   523

Causes and economic aspects of leaks 523

Simple leak detection systems 524

Pig-based monitoring systems 525

Computer-based monitoring systems  525

Pipeline leak phenomena  526

Background philosophy of pipeline modeling  526

Basic pipeline modeling equations 527

Impact of instrument accuracy 528

System design aspects and guidelines  529

Development of pipeline monitoring systems  530

18: Tanks, 532

Charts give vapor loss from internal ?oating-roof tanks 533

Estimating the contents of horizontal cylindrical tanks 535

How to gauge a horizontal cylindrical tank 536

Use nomograph to and tank capacity  536

Correct the volume of light fuels from actual temperature to a base of 60°F  538

Volume of liquid in vertical cylindrical tanks 538

Chart gives tank’s vapor formation rate 538

Hand-held calculator program simpli?es like computations 539

19: Maintenance, 544

How to Plan for Oil Pipeline Spills  545

Regulatory requirements  545

Contingency plan objectives 545

Related studies 545

Planning concepts 546

Contingency response 547

Immediate response 548

Immediate response actions 549

Flexible response actions  549

Training 550

20: Economics, 552

Rule of thumb speeds payroll estimates 553

Rule of thumb estimates optimum time to keep construction equipment 554

How to estimate construction costs 556

Cost estimating strategies for pipelines, stations, terminals 559

Economics 566

Time Value of Money: Concepts and Formulas  570

Simple interest vs compound interest 570

Nominal interest rate vs effective annual interest rate 571

Present value of a single cash ?ow to be received in the future  571

Future value of a single investment 572

The importance of cash ?ow diagrams 572

Analyzing and valuing investments/projects with multiple or irregular cash ?ows 572

Perpetuities 573

Future value of a periodic series of investments 574

Annuities, loans, and leases 574

Gradients (payouts/payments with constant growth rates) 575

Analyzing complex investments and cash ?ow problems 576

Decision and Evaluation Criteria for Investments and Financial Projects  577

Payback method  577

Accounting rate of return (ROR) method  578

Internal rate of return (IRR) method  579

Net present value (NPV) method  580

Sensitivity Analysis  581

Decision Tree Analysis of Investments and Financial Projects 582

Accounting Fundamentals   586

Estimate the cost of a pipeline in the US (based on 1994 data)  590

How to compare the cost of operating an engine on diesel and natural gas  591

How to estimate energy costs for different pipelinethroughputs 591

Comparing fuel costs for diesel and electric prime movers 592

Nomograph for calculating scale-up of equipment or plant costs  592

Nomograph for calculating scale-up of tank costs  594

Nomograph for determining sum-of-years depreciation 595

Nomograph for estimating interest rate of return oninvestment (“pro?tability index”) 595

Nomograph for determining break-even point 597

Chart gives unit cost per brake horsepower of reciprocating compressors with various types of prime movers  598

Chart shows in?uence on unit cost of numbers of reciprocating compressor units installed in one station  598

Chart gives unit cost per brake horsepower of  centrifugal compressors with various types of prime movers 599

21: Rehabilitation—Risk

Evaluation, 600

When does a pipeline need revalidation? The in?uence of defect growth rates and inspection criteria on an operator’s maintenance program 601

Pipeline risk management 610

22: Conversion Factors, 614

Units of measurement from one system to another 615

Viscosity—equivalents of absolute viscosity 623

General liquid density nomograph 624

Chart gives speci?c gravity/temperature relationship for petroleum oils  626

Weight density and speci?c gravity of various liquids  626

Metric conversions—metric to English, English to metric  627

Temperature conversion—centigrade to Fahrenheit,Fahrenheit to centigrade 628

Viscosity—equivalents of kinematic viscosity 629

Viscosity—equivalents of kinematic and Saybolt Universal Viscosity  629

Viscosity—equivalents of kinematic and SayboltFurol Viscosity at 122°F 630

Viscosity—general conversions 631

Pressure conversion chart 633

A simple method to determine square root 633

SI data 634

Energy conversion chart  635

Flow conversion chart 635

Conversions involving different types of fuel  636

Weight of water per cubic ft at various temperatures 641

Engineering constants 641

Mensuration units 642

Minutes to decimal hours conversion table 642

How to compare costs of gas and alternate fuels 643

Typical characteristics of fuel oils  643

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