Power Generation From Solid Fuel

 Content

1 Motivation 1
1.1 Primary Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions 1
1.1.1 Development of Primary Energy Consumption in the Past 40 Years 1
1.1.2 Developments Until 2030 1
1.2 Greenhouse Effect and Impacts on the Climate 5
1.2.1 Greenhouse Effect 6
1.2.2 Impacts8
1.2.3 Scenarios of the World Climate 8
1.3 Strategies of CO2 Reduction 10
1.3.1 Substitution 10
1.3.2 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS11
1.3.3 Energy Saving 12
1.3.4 Mitigation Scenarios 12
References 13

2 Solid Fuels 15
2.1 Fossil Fuels 15
2.1.1 Origin and Classification of Coal Types 15
2.1.2 Composition and Properties of Solid Fuels  16
2.1.3 Reserves of Solid Fuels 25
2.2 Renewable Solid Fuels 29
2.2.1 Potential and Current Utilisation 29
2.2.2 Considerations of the CO2 Neutrality of Regenerative Fuels . . 40
2.2.3 Fuel Characteristics of Biomass 42
References. 54

3 Thermodynamics Fundamentals  57
3.1 Cycles 57
3.1.1 Carnot Cycle 57
3.1.2 Joule–Thomson Process 58
3.1.3 Clausius–Rankine Cycle 61
3.2 Steam Power Cycle: Energy and Exergy Considerations64
3.2.1 Steam Generator Energy and Exergy Efficiencies 67
3.2.2 Energy and Exergy Cycle Efficiencies 69
3.2.3 Energy and Exergy Efficiency of the Total Cycle 70
References 71

4 Steam Power Stations for Electricity and Heat Generation 73
4.1 Pulverised Hard Coal Fired Steam Power Plants 73
4.1.1 Energy Conversion and System Components 73
4.1.2 Design of a Condensation Power Plant 75
4.1.3 Development History of Power Plants – Correlation Between Unit Size, Availability and Efficiency 77
4.1.4 Reference Power Plant 81
4.2 Steam Generators 81
4.2.1 Flow and Heat Transfer Inside a Tube 83
4.2.2 Evaporator Configurations 87
4.2.3 Steam Generator Construction Types 93
4.2.4 Operating Regimes and Control Modes 95
4.3 Design of a Condensation Power Plant 104
4.3.1 Requirements and Boundary Conditions 104
4.3.2 Thermodynamic Design of the Power Plant Cycle 110
4.3.3 Heat Balance of the Boiler and Boiler Efficiency 114
4.3.4 Design of the Furnace 115
4.3.5 Design of the Steam Generator and of the Heating Surfaces 121
4.3.6 Design of the Flue Gas Cleaning Units and the Auxiliaries 141
4.4 Possibilities for Efficiency Increases in the Development of a Steam Power Plant
4.4.1 Increases in Thermal Efficiencies 142
4.4.2 Reduction of Losses 161
4.4.3 Reduction of the Auxiliary Power Requirements 172
4.4.4 Losses in Part-Load Operation 175
4.4.5 Losses During Start-Up and Shutdown 178
4.4.6 Efficiency of Power Plants During Operation 179
4.4.7 Fuel Drying for Brown Coal 179
4.5 Effects on Steam Generator Construction 184
4.5.1 MembraneWall 186
4.5.2 Heating Surfaces of the Final Superheater 194
4.5.3 High-Pressure Outlet Header 201
4.5.4 Furnaces Fuelled by Dried Brown Coal 204
4.6 Developments – State of the Art and Future  206
4.6.1 Hard Coal  206
4.6.2 Brown Coal  214
References 214
5 Combustion Systems for Solid Fossil Fuels 221
5.1 Combustion Fundamentals 223
5.1.1 Drying 224
5.1.2 Pyrolysis 225
5.1.3 Ignition 227
5.1.4 Combustion of Volatile Matter 230
5.1.5 Combustion of the Residual Char 230
5.2 Pollutant Formation Fundamentals 234
5.2.1 Nitrogen Oxides 234
5.2.2 Sulphur Oxides
5.2.3 Ash formation 242
5.2.4 Products of Incomplete Combustion 245
5.3 Pulverised Fuel Firing 246
5.3.1 Pulverised Fuel Firing Systems 246
5.3.2 Fuel Preparation 249
5.3.3 Burners252
5.3.4 Dry-Bottom Firing 254
5.3.5 Slag-Tap Firing 257
5.4 Fluidised Bed Firing Systems 263
5.4.1 Bubbling Fluidised Bed Furnaces 264
5.4.2 Circulating Fluidised Bed Furnaces 266
5.5 Stoker/Grate Firing Systems 271
5.5.1 Travelling Grate Stoker Firing 271
5.5.2 Self-Raking TypeMoving-Grate Stokers 273
5.5.3 Vibrating-Grate Stokers 275
5.6 Legislation and Emission Limits 275
5.7 Methods for NOx Reduction 277
5.7.1 Combustion Engineering Measures 279
5.7.2 NOx Reduction Methods, SNCR and SCR (Secondary Measures) 302
5.7.3 Dissemination and Costs. 306
5.8 SO2-Reduction Methods 307
5.8.1 Methods to Reduce the Sulphur Content of the Fuel  308
5.8.2 Methods of Fuel Gas Desulphurisation 308
5.8.3 Dissemination and Costs 315
5.9 Particulate Control Methods 315
5.9.1 Mechanical Separators (Inertia Separators) 316
5.9.2 Electrostatic Precipitators  317
5.9.3 Fabric Filters 319
5.9.4 Applications and Costs. 321
5.10 Effect of Slag, Ash and Flue Gas on Furnace Walls and Convective Heat Transfer Surfaces (Operational Problems) 322
5.10.1 Slagging  324
5.10.2 Fouling. 334
5.10.3 Erosion335

5.10.4 High-Temperature Corrosion336
5.11 Residual Matter 340
5.11.1 Forming and Quantities 340
5.11.2 Commercial Exploitation 344
References. 351

6 Power Generation from Biomass and Waste. 361
6.1 Power Production Pathways 361
6.1.1 Techniques Involving Combustion 361
6.1.2 Techniques Involving Gasification. 363
6.2 Biomass Combustion Systems 364
6.2.1 Capacities and Types 364
6.2.2 Impact of Load and Forms of Delivery of the Fuel Types 365
6.2.3 Furnace Types 366
6.2.4 Flue Gas Cleaning and Ash Disposal 373
6.2.5 Operational Problems 377
6.3 Biomass Gasification 379
6.3.1 Reactor Design Types 380
6.3.2 Gas Utilisation and Quality Requirements 389
6.3.3 Gas Cleaning 391
6.3.4 Power Production Processes 398
6.4 Thermal Utilisation of Waste (Energy from Waste) 401
6.4.1 Historical Development of Energy from Waste
Systems (EfW) 405
6.4.2 Grate-Based Combustion Systems 408
6.4.3 Pyrolysis and Gasification Systems 418
6.4.4 Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF). 421
6.4.5 Sewage Sludge 423
6.4.6 Steam Boilers 424
6.4.7 Efficiency Increases in EfWPlants 425
6.4.8 Dioxins 434
6.4.9 Flue Gas Cleaning 435
6.5 Co-combustion in Coal-Fired Power Plants. 438
6.5.1 Co-combustion Design Concepts 440
6.5.2 Biomass Preparation and Feeding 442
6.5.3 Co-combustion in Pulverised Fuel Firing. 446
6.5.4 Co-combustion in Fluidised Bed Furnaces 458
References. 461

7 Coal-Fuelled Combined Cycle Power Plants 469
7.1 Natural Gas Fuelled Combined Cycle Processes  469
7.2 Overview of Combined Processes with Coal Combustion 474
7.2.1 Introduction 474
7.2.2 Hot Gas Purity Requirements 477
7.2.3 Overview of the Hot Gas Cleaning System for Coal
Combustion Combined Cycles 480
7.2.4 Effect of Pressure on Combustion481
7.3 Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion (PFBC) 483
7.3.1 Overview 483
7.3.2 Hot Gas Cleaning After the Pressurised Fluidised Bed 490
7.3.3 Pressurised Bubbling Fluidised Bed Combustion (PBFBC). . 498
7.3.4 Pressurised Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion (PCFBC). 507
7.3.5 Second-Generation Fluidised Bed Firing Systems (Hybrid Process) 514
7.3.6 Summary 517
7.4 Pressurised Pulverised Coal Combustion (PPCC) 518
7.4.1 Overview 518
7.4.2 Molten Slag Removal 520
7.4.3 Alkali Release and Capture  523
7.4.4 State of Development 538
7.4.5 Summary and Conclusions 545
7.5 Externally Fired Gas Turbine Processes 546
7.5.1 Structure, Configurations, Efficiency 546
7.5.2 High-Temperature Heat Exchanger 551
7.5.3 State of Development 561
7.5.4 Conclusions . 568
7.6 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC). 569
7.6.1 History of Coal Gasification. 569
7.6.2 Applications of Gasification Technology. 570
7.6.3 Gasification Systems and Chemical Reactions 576
7.6.4 Classification of Coal Gasifiers 585
7.6.5 Gas Treatment 593
7.6.6 Components and Integration. 608
7.6.7 State of the Art and Perspectives. 612
References 619

8 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) 629
8.1 Potential for Carbon Capture and Storage 629
8.2 Properties and Transport of CO2 630
8.3 CO2 Storage 632
8.3.1 Industrial Use 632
8.3.2 Geological Storage 633
8.4 Overview of Capture Technologies 637
8.4.1 Technology Overview 637
8.4.2 Separation Technologies 639
8.5 Post-combustion Technologies. 642
8.5.1 Chemical Absorption 642
8.5.2 Solid Sorbents . 646
8.6 Oxy-fuel Combustion . 647
8.6.1 Oxy-fuel Steam Generator Concepts 649
8.6.2 Impact of Oxy-fuel Combustion 651
8.6.3 Oxy-fuel Configurations . 656
8.6.4 Chemical-Looping Combustion 659
8.7 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycles with Carbon Capture and Storage 661
8.8 Comparison of CCS Technologies. 663
References 665
Index 669

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Handbook of Reactive Chemical Hazards

Preface to the Seventh Edition
It is a regret, to the Editor, his assistants, and surely to readers, that Leslie Bretherick died in April 2003 after a short period of overt illness. This work is his major memorial. The measure of how well he wrought is that, in this third edition after his declining sight caused him to hand over the reins, he is still responsible for the initial selection of more than 70% of compound and group entries, however much these may subsequently have been augmented. Only three ‘new’ compounds have entered this edition on hazard reports from literature which he might have found, but did not, in the days before computers, keywords and hazard warnings in bold or italic, made winnowing the literature as easy as it is today.

The general lines and layout of his maximum opus remain little changed. There is a proliferating literature of what is best described as theoretical  chemical safety. Leslie Bretherick initially tried to cover all of this but, well before his death, we agreed that Bretherick should concentrate upon the unfortunate incidents that actually occurred, using, we hoped, well-chosen words. Even here, some selection is involved; azides and organic or organometallic perchlorates only gain individual entries if they are either exceptionally sensitive, or advanced as synthetic reagents. Neither do novel compounds proposed as explosives automatically gain entry; they usually have the characteristics of two or more group entries. The theoretical side is not ignored but selectively, and not exhaustively, covered.


The manufacturer’s safety data sheets now supplied alongside chemicals, even by laboratory supply houses, are steadily improving and so render reference to published compound safety datasheet compilations otiose. Since many of the recent latter appear to result from cut and paste by uncritical Information Technology specialists, lacking hands-on experience of the chemicals involved, that is perhaps as well.

Internal reorganisation within Reed International means that the Handbook is now published by Elsevier, not Butterworth Heinemann. Thanks are therefore due to the staff of both organisations. Dr Martin Pitt of the University of Sheffield ably assists me in the more purely chemical engineering matters and also in surfing the Internet, whence my criteria for inclusion remain two of these three: I find the report credible, the source is authoritative and the hazard is not already listed. The libraries of the universities of Durham, Edinburgh, and Warwick have helped me to study sources, and thanks are due to my erstwhile employer, become part of Akzo Nobel, for continuing to allow me occasional days off to undertake the work.

The computerised systems of compilation and structure drawing have been changed and I hope that this has not introduced too many unfound flaws and errors. For these, as others, I must take responsibility and I hope that readers will be unsparing in pointing them out. But, reader, the ultimate responsibility for your safety remains with you: study, think, and experiment with caution while doubt remains. And, should you thus find new hazard, please report it.

P. G. URBEN

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Distillation Design

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Chemical Grouting and Soil Stabilization

1.Introduction
1.1.General
1.2 Modification and Stabilization
1.3 Soil and Rock Sampling
1.4 Degree of Representation
1.5 Safety Factors
1.6 Permanence
1.7 Failure Criteria
1.8 Summary
1.9 General References
1.10 Problems

2.Soil and Rock Properties
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Void Ratio and Porosity
2.3 Density and Relative Density
2.4 Permeability
2.5 Shear Strength
2.6 Consolidation Characteristics
2.7 Stress Transmission
2.8 Soil and Rock Classification
2.9 Rock Properties
2.10 Summary
2.11 References
2.12 Problems

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Solid Liquid Separation

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PRELIMINARY CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

Preface x i
1 . INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS DESIGN 1
Research, 2.
Other Sources of Innovations, 3.
Process Engineering,4.
Professional Responsibilities, 7.
Competing Processes,8 .
Typical Problems a Process Engineer Tackles, 9.
Comparison with A l t e r n a t i v e s , 1 4 .
C o m p l e t i n g t h e Project, 16.
Units,17.
References, 18.
Bibliography, 18.

2 . SITE SELECTION
Major Site Location Factors, 25.
Other Site Location Factors, 34.
Case Study: Site Selection, 48.
References, 54.

3 . THE SCOPE 57
The Product, 60.
Capacity, 60.
Quality, 66. Raw Material Storage,67.
Product Storage, 68.
The Process, 69.
Waste Disposal,Utilities, Shipping and Laboratory Requirements, 70.
Plans for Future Expansion,70.
Hours of Operation, 71.
Completion Date, 71.
Safety, 71.
Case Study: Scope, 72.
Scope Summary,75.
References, 78.

4 . PROCESS DESIGN AND SAFETY
Chemistry, 79.
Separations, 80.
Unit Ratio Material Balance,8 4 .
Detailed Flow Sheet, 85.
Safety, 89.
Case Study: Process Design,97.
Change of Scope, 103.
References, 103.

5 . EQUIPMENT LIST
Sizing of Equipment, 106.
Planning for Future Expansion,111.
Materials of Construction, 113.
Temperature and Pressure,113.
Laboratory Equipment, 114.
Completion of Equipment List,114.
Rules of Thumb, 114.
Case Study: Major Equipment Required,117.
Change of Scope, 132.
References, 133.

6. LAYOUT 141
New Plant Layout, 141.
Expansion and Improvements of Existing Facilities, 152.
Case Study: Layout and Warehouse Requirements,153.
References, 158.
7 . PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION
Product Quality 160.
Product Quantity, 160.
Plant Safety,161.
Manual or Automatic Control, 161.
Control System,162.
Variables to be Measured, 162.
Final Control Element,163.
Control and Instrumentation Symbols, 164.
Averaging versus Set Point Control, 166.
Material Balance Control, 167.
Tempered Heat Transfer, 168.
Cascade Control, 170.
Feedforward Control,171.
Blending, 172.
Digital Control, 172.
Pneumatic versus Electronic Equipment, 173.
Case Study: Instrumentation and Control,174.
References, 180.

8. ENERGY AND UTILITY BALANCES
AND MANPOWER NEEDS 181
Conservation of Energy, 182.
Energy Balances, 183.
Sizing Energy Equipment, 191.
Planning for Expansion, 204.
Lighting,205.
Ventilation, Space Heating and Cooling, and Personal Water Requirements,207.
Utility Requirements, 209.
Manpower Requirements,210.
Rules of Thumb, 2 11.
Case Study: Energy Balance and Utility Assessment, 213.
Change of Scope, 231.
References, 232.

9 . COST ESTIMATION 237
Cost Indexes, 237.
How Capacity Affects Costs, 239.
Factored Cost Estimate, 246.
Improvements on the Factored Estimate, 249.
Module Cost Estimation, 254.
Unit Operations Estimate, 258.
Detailed Cost Estimate, 263.
Accuracy of Estimates, 264.
Case Study: Capital Cost Estimation, 264.
References, 275.

1 0 . ECONOMICS
Cost of Producing a Chemical, 28 1.
Capital, 284.
Elementary Profitability Measures, 285.
Time Value of Money, 293. Compound Interest,295.
Net Present Value-A Good Profitability Measure, 307.
Rate of Return-Another Good Profitability Measure, 311.
Comparison of Net Present Value and Rate of Return Methods, 316.
Proper Interest Rates,317.
Expected Return on the Investment, 323.
Case Study: Economic Evaluation, 324.
Problems, 330.
References, 338.


1 1 . DEPRECIATION, AMORTIZATION, DEPLETION
AND INVESTMENT CREDIT
Depreciation, 339.
Amortization, 348.
Depletion Allowance,
348. Investment Credit, 349.
Special Tax Rules, 350.
Case Study:The Net Present Value and Rate of Return, 350.
Problems.351.
References, 352.

1 2 . DETAILED ENGINEERING,
CONSTRUCTION, AND STARTUP
Detailed Engineering, 353.
Construction 361.
Startup,363.
References. 367.

PLANNING TOOLS-CPM AND PERT CPM, 370.
Manpower and Equipment Leveling, 376.
Cost and Schedule Control, 380.
Time for Completing Activity, 380.
Computers, 381.
PERT, 382.
Problems, 386.
References, 390.

OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES
Starting Point, 392.
One-at-a-Time Procedure, 393.
Single Variable Gptimizations, 396.
Multivariable Optimizations, 396.
End Game,409.
Algebraic Objective Functions, 409.
Optimizing Optimizations ,409.
Optimization and Process Design, 410.
References, 412.

DIGITAL COMPUTERS AND PROCESS ENGINEERING
Computer Programs, 416.
Sensitivity, 420.
Program Sources,420.
Evaluation of Computer Programs, 421.
References, 422.

POLLUTION AND ITS ABATEMENT
What is Pollution?, 424.
Determining Pollution Standards,425.
Meeting Pollution Standards, 428.
Air Pollution Abatement Methods, 431.
Water Pollution Abatement Methods, 437.
BOD and COD, 447.
Concentrated Liquid and Solid Waste Treatment Procedures,452.
References, 454.
ix

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INHERENT SFAETY IN PROCESS PLANT DESIGN

Contents
Abstract
Preface.
List of symbols
1. Introduction
2. Safety
3. Evaluation of Safety
4. Some Safety Analysis Methods for Process Plant Design
4.1 Dow Fire and Explosion Hazard Index
4.2 Mond Index
4.3 Hazard and Operability Analysis (Hazop)
4.4 Prototype Index of Inherent Safety (PIIS)
5. Limitations of the Existing Safety Analysis Methods in Conceptual Process Design
6. Inherent Safety
6.1 The Principles of Inherent Safety
6.2 Inherent Safety in Preliminary Process Design
6.3 Evaluation of Inherent Safety
7. Factors Selected to Represent the Inherent Safety in Preliminary Process Design
7.1 Heat of Reaction
7.2 Hazardous Substances
7.2.1 Flammability
7.2.2 Explosiveness
7.2.3 Toxic Exposure
7.3 Corrosiveness
7.4 Chemical Interaction
7.5 Inventory
7.6 Temperature
7.7 Pressure
7.8 Equipment safety
7.9 Safe Process Structure
8. Inherent Safety Index
8.1 Total Index as an Approach
8.2 Calculation Method of the Index
9. The Weighting between Subindices of Inherent Safety Index
10. Subindices of Chemical Inherent Safety Index
10.1 Subindices of Reaction Hazards
10.1.1 Reaction Heat Subindex for the Main Reaction
10.1.2 Reaction Heat Subindex for the Side Reactions
10.1.3 Chemical Interaction Subindex
10.2 Subindices for Hazardous Substances
10.2.1 Flammability Subindex
10.2.2 Explosiveness Subindex
10.2.3 Toxic Exposure Subindex
10.2.4 Corrosiveness Subindex
11. Subindices for Process Inherent Safety Index
11.1 Inventory Subindex
11.2 Process Temperature Subindex
11.3 Process Pressure Subindex
11.4 Equipment Safety Subindex
11.4.1 Evaluation of Equipment Safety
11.4.2 Equipment Layout
11.4.3 Equipment Involved in Large Losses
11.4.4 Equipment in Other Indices
11.4.5 Equipment Failures and Their Evaluation
11.4.6 Equipment Safety Subindex for ISBL
11.4.7 Equipment Safety Subindex for OSBL
11.5 Safe Process Structure Subindex
11.5.1 Evaluation of Safe Process Structure
11.5.2 Sources of Experience Based Safety Information
11.5.3 Structure of the Database
11.5.4 Inherent Safety Index of Safe Process Structure
12. Case Study
13. Case-Based Reasoning for Safety Evaluation
13.1 Description of Prototype Application
13.1.1 Input and Output Parameters
13.1.2 Retrieval of Cases
13.2 Case Study
13.2.1 CBR on Process Level
13.2.2 CBR on the Reactor System
13.2.3 Score of the Safe Process Structure Subindex
14. Application of Inherent Safety Index for Computerized Process Synthesis
14.1 Classical Process Synthesis
14.2 Process Synthesis by Optimization
14.3 Genetic Optimization
14.4 Principle of the Method
14.4.1 Case Study; Separation Process
14.4.2 Case Study; Emulsion Polymerization Process
15. Conclusions
References


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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN PROJECT

Contents
Introduction to the Series
Acknowledgements
I About this Book - The Case Study Approach
I I Advice to the Student
III To the Lecturer
I V The Scope of Design Projects
V Effective Communications
VI Comments on the Case Study Approach
The Case Study - Summary for the Completed Project
PART I PRELIMINARY DESIGN - TECHNICAL AND
ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY

CHAPTER 1 THE DESIGN PROBLEM
1.1 Initial Considerations and Specification
The Case Study - Summary for Part I
Feasibility Study and Initial Design Considerations
1.2 Case Study- Defining the Problem and Background
Information
Summary
1.2.1 Introduction
1.2.2 Properties and Uses
1.2.3 The Evolution of Nitric Acid Production
Processes
1.2.4 Ammonia Oxidation Chemistry

CHAPTER 2 FEASIBILITY STUDY AND LITERATURE
SURVEY
Initial Feasibility Study
Presentation of Literature Surveys for Projects
Case Study- Feasibility Study (Market Assessment)
Summary
2.3.1 Introduction
2.3.2 The Domestic Scene
2.3.3 The Global Market
2.3.4 Market Analysis Discussion
2.3.5 Market Assessment Conclusions
Case Study - Literature Survey
Summary
2.4.1 Introduction
2.4.2 General Information
2.4.3 Process Technology
2.4.4 Cost Estimation
2.4.5 Market Data
2.4.6 Thermodynamic Data
Case Study - Bibliography

CHAPTER 3 PROCESS SELECTION
3.1 Process Selection - Considerations
3.2 Case Study - Process Selection
Summary
3.2.1 Introduction
3.2.2 Process Comparison
Factors Favouring the Dual-Pressure Process
Factors Favouring the Single-Pressure Process
Other Considerations
3.2.3 Process Selection Conclusions

CHAPTER 4 PROCESS DESCRIPTION AND EQUIPMENT
LIST
4.1 Introductory Notes
4.2 Case Study - Process Description
4.2.1 Introduction
4.2.2 The Process
4.2.3 Requirements of Major Process Units
4.2.4 Mechanical Design Features of Major Units
4.2.5 Process Flow Diagram
4.2.6 Process Performance Assessment

CHAPTER 5 SITE CONSIDERATIONS
5.1 Site Selection
5.2 Plant Layout
5.3 Environmental Impact Analysis
5.3.1 General Considerations
5.3.2 EIA Policy and Scope
5.3.3 EIA Reports
5.3.4 Australia
5.3.5 United Kingdom
5.3.6 United States
5.4 Case Study - Site Considerations
5.4.1 Site Considerations - Introduction
5.4.2 Site Selection
5.4.3 Perth Metropolitan Region
5.4.4 Country Districts
5.4.5 Site Location Conclusions
5.4.6 Plant Layout
5.4.7 Environmental Impact Analysis

CHAPTER 6 ECONOMIC EVALUATION
6.1 Introductory Notes
6.2 Capital Cost Estimation
6.2.1 Cost of Equipment (Major Items)
6.2.2 Module Costs
6.2.3 Auxiliary Services
6.3 Operating Costs
6.4 Profitability Analysis
6.5 Case Study - Economic Evaluation
6.5.1 Introduction
CONTENTS
65.2 Capital Cost Estimation
(a) The Ratio Method
(b) The Factorial Method
(c) Capital Cost Conclusions
6.53 Investment Return

CHAPTER 7 MASS AND ENERGY BALANCES
7.1 Preparation of Mass and Energy Balances
7.2 Preliminary Equipment Design
7.3 Computer-Aided Design
7.4 Case Study - Mass and Energy Balances
7.4.1 Overall Process Mass Balance
7.4.2 Unit Mass and Energy Balances
7.4.2.1 Ammonia Vaporizer
7.4.2.2 Ammonia Superheater
7.4.2.3 Two-stage Air Compressor
7.4.2.4 Reactor Feed Mixer
7.4.2.5 Reactor
7.4.2.6 Steam Superheater
7.4.2.7 Waste-Heat Boiler
7.4.2.8 Platinum Filter
7.4.2.9 Tail-Gas Preheater
7.4.2.10 Oxidation Unit
7.4.2.11 Cooler/Condenser
7.4.2.12 Secondary Cooler
7.4.2.13 Absorber
7.4.2.14 Bleaching Column
7.4.2.15 Vapor/Liquid Separator
7.4.2.16 Tail-Gas Warmer
7.4.2.17 Refrigeration Unit


PART II DETAILED EQUIPMENT DESIGN
CHAPTER 8 THE DETAILED DESIGN STAGE
8.1 Detailed Equipment Design
8.1.1 Equipment Design - HELP!
8.2
CONTENTS
Additional Design Considerations
8.2.1 Energy Conservation
8.2.2 Process Control and Instrumentation
8.2.3 Safety, Loss Prevention and HAZOP
References
Case Study - Summary for Part II: Detailed Equipment
Design
Case Study-Amendments to Part I

CHAPTER 9 CASE STUDY - ABSORPTION COLUMN
DESIGN
9.1 introduction
9.2 The Design Method
9.2.1 The Mathematical Model
9.2.2 Sieve-Plate Hydraulic Design
9.2.3 Mechanical Design of Column
9.2.4 Process Control Scheme
Important Operating Considerations
Design Constraints
Absorption Column Specification
Sieve Tray Specifications
Process Control Scheme
Hazard and Operability Study
Discussion of Results
Assessment of the Design Method
Revised Absorption Column Costing
Conclusions
References


CHAPTER 10 CASE STUDY - STEAM SUPERHEATER
DESIGN
Summary
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Summary of Design Method
10.2.1 The Kern Method
10.2.2 The Bell Method
10.2.3 Mechanical Sizing 196
10.3 Design Selection Factors
10.3.1 Exchanger Type
10.3.2 Choice of Flow Mode
10.3.3 Materials Selection
10.3.4 Shell and Tube Sizing
10.4 Design Specification
10.5 Process Control
10.6 Design Method Evaluation
10.7 Revised Cost Estimation
10.8 Conclusions
References

CHAPTER 11 CASE STUDY - BLEACHING-COLUMN
FEED PUMP SPECIFICATION
Summary
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Design Method
11.3 Pump Specification
11.4 Discussion
11.5 Conclusions
References

CHAPTER 12 CASE STUDY - NITRIC ACID STORAGETANK
DESIGN
Summary
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Design Method
12.3 Tank Specification
12.4 Conclusions
References

Final Comments 220
APPENDICES
Appendix A Data for Section 1.2
Appendix B Data for Section 2.3
Appendix C Data for Section 3.2
Appendix D Data for Section 4.2
Appendix E Data for Section 6.5

Appendix F Calculations for Section 7.4 255
CONTENTS xi
Appendix G Absorption Column Calculations (Chapter 9) 281
Appendix H Steam Superheater Calculations (Chapter 10) 307
Appendix I Pump Calculations (Chapter 11) 325
Appendix J Tank Calculations (Chapter 12) 338
Appendix K Design Projects Information 343
Appendix L Information Sources 351
INDEX 355



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