Power Generation From Solid Fuel
Monday, January 17, 2011
Content
1 Motivation 1
1.1 Primary Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions 1
1.1.1 Development of Primary Energy Consumption in the Past 40 Years 1
1.1.2 Developments Until 2030 1
1.2 Greenhouse Effect and Impacts on the Climate 5
1.2.1 Greenhouse Effect 6
1.2.2 Impacts8
1.2.3 Scenarios of the World Climate 8
1.3 Strategies of CO2 Reduction 10
1.3.1 Substitution 10
1.3.2 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS11
1.3.3 Energy Saving 12
1.3.4 Mitigation Scenarios 12
References 13
2 Solid Fuels 15
2.1 Fossil Fuels 15
2.1.1 Origin and Classification of Coal Types 15
2.1.2 Composition and Properties of Solid Fuels 16
2.1.3 Reserves of Solid Fuels 25
2.2 Renewable Solid Fuels 29
2.2.1 Potential and Current Utilisation 29
2.2.2 Considerations of the CO2 Neutrality of Regenerative Fuels . . 40
2.2.3 Fuel Characteristics of Biomass 42
References. 54
3 Thermodynamics Fundamentals 57
3.1 Cycles 57
3.1.1 Carnot Cycle 57
3.1.2 Joule–Thomson Process 58
3.1.3 Clausius–Rankine Cycle 61
3.2 Steam Power Cycle: Energy and Exergy Considerations64
3.2.1 Steam Generator Energy and Exergy Efficiencies 67
3.2.2 Energy and Exergy Cycle Efficiencies 69
3.2.3 Energy and Exergy Efficiency of the Total Cycle 70
References 71
4 Steam Power Stations for Electricity and Heat Generation 73
4.1 Pulverised Hard Coal Fired Steam Power Plants 73
4.1.1 Energy Conversion and System Components 73
4.1.2 Design of a Condensation Power Plant 75
4.1.3 Development History of Power Plants – Correlation Between Unit Size, Availability and Efficiency 77
4.1.4 Reference Power Plant 81
4.2 Steam Generators 81
4.2.1 Flow and Heat Transfer Inside a Tube 83
4.2.2 Evaporator Configurations 87
4.2.3 Steam Generator Construction Types 93
4.2.4 Operating Regimes and Control Modes 95
4.3 Design of a Condensation Power Plant 104
4.3.1 Requirements and Boundary Conditions 104
4.3.2 Thermodynamic Design of the Power Plant Cycle 110
4.3.3 Heat Balance of the Boiler and Boiler Efficiency 114
4.3.4 Design of the Furnace 115
4.3.5 Design of the Steam Generator and of the Heating Surfaces 121
4.3.6 Design of the Flue Gas Cleaning Units and the Auxiliaries 141
4.4 Possibilities for Efficiency Increases in the Development of a Steam Power Plant
4.4.1 Increases in Thermal Efficiencies 142
4.4.2 Reduction of Losses 161
4.4.3 Reduction of the Auxiliary Power Requirements 172
4.4.4 Losses in Part-Load Operation 175
4.4.5 Losses During Start-Up and Shutdown 178
4.4.6 Efficiency of Power Plants During Operation 179
4.4.7 Fuel Drying for Brown Coal 179
4.5 Effects on Steam Generator Construction 184
4.5.1 MembraneWall 186
4.5.2 Heating Surfaces of the Final Superheater 194
4.5.3 High-Pressure Outlet Header 201
4.5.4 Furnaces Fuelled by Dried Brown Coal 204
4.6 Developments – State of the Art and Future 206
4.6.1 Hard Coal 206
4.6.2 Brown Coal 214
References 214
5 Combustion Systems for Solid Fossil Fuels 221
5.1 Combustion Fundamentals 223
5.1.1 Drying 224
5.1.2 Pyrolysis 225
5.1.3 Ignition 227
5.1.4 Combustion of Volatile Matter 230
5.1.5 Combustion of the Residual Char 230
5.2 Pollutant Formation Fundamentals 234
5.2.1 Nitrogen Oxides 234
5.2.2 Sulphur Oxides
5.2.3 Ash formation 242
5.2.4 Products of Incomplete Combustion 245
5.3 Pulverised Fuel Firing 246
5.3.1 Pulverised Fuel Firing Systems 246
5.3.2 Fuel Preparation 249
5.3.3 Burners252
5.3.4 Dry-Bottom Firing 254
5.3.5 Slag-Tap Firing 257
5.4 Fluidised Bed Firing Systems 263
5.4.1 Bubbling Fluidised Bed Furnaces 264
5.4.2 Circulating Fluidised Bed Furnaces 266
5.5 Stoker/Grate Firing Systems 271
5.5.1 Travelling Grate Stoker Firing 271
5.5.2 Self-Raking TypeMoving-Grate Stokers 273
5.5.3 Vibrating-Grate Stokers 275
5.6 Legislation and Emission Limits 275
5.7 Methods for NOx Reduction 277
5.7.1 Combustion Engineering Measures 279
5.7.2 NOx Reduction Methods, SNCR and SCR (Secondary Measures) 302
5.7.3 Dissemination and Costs. 306
5.8 SO2-Reduction Methods 307
5.8.1 Methods to Reduce the Sulphur Content of the Fuel 308
5.8.2 Methods of Fuel Gas Desulphurisation 308
5.8.3 Dissemination and Costs 315
5.9 Particulate Control Methods 315
5.9.1 Mechanical Separators (Inertia Separators) 316
5.9.2 Electrostatic Precipitators 317
5.9.3 Fabric Filters 319
5.9.4 Applications and Costs. 321
5.10 Effect of Slag, Ash and Flue Gas on Furnace Walls and Convective Heat Transfer Surfaces (Operational Problems) 322
5.10.1 Slagging 324
5.10.2 Fouling. 334
5.10.3 Erosion335
5.10.4 High-Temperature Corrosion336
5.11 Residual Matter 340
5.11.1 Forming and Quantities 340
5.11.2 Commercial Exploitation 344
References. 351
6 Power Generation from Biomass and Waste. 361
6.1 Power Production Pathways 361
6.1.1 Techniques Involving Combustion 361
6.1.2 Techniques Involving Gasification. 363
6.2 Biomass Combustion Systems 364
6.2.1 Capacities and Types 364
6.2.2 Impact of Load and Forms of Delivery of the Fuel Types 365
6.2.3 Furnace Types 366
6.2.4 Flue Gas Cleaning and Ash Disposal 373
6.2.5 Operational Problems 377
6.3 Biomass Gasification 379
6.3.1 Reactor Design Types 380
6.3.2 Gas Utilisation and Quality Requirements 389
6.3.3 Gas Cleaning 391
6.3.4 Power Production Processes 398
6.4 Thermal Utilisation of Waste (Energy from Waste) 401
6.4.1 Historical Development of Energy from Waste
Systems (EfW) 405
6.4.2 Grate-Based Combustion Systems 408
6.4.3 Pyrolysis and Gasification Systems 418
6.4.4 Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF). 421
6.4.5 Sewage Sludge 423
6.4.6 Steam Boilers 424
6.4.7 Efficiency Increases in EfWPlants 425
6.4.8 Dioxins 434
6.4.9 Flue Gas Cleaning 435
6.5 Co-combustion in Coal-Fired Power Plants. 438
6.5.1 Co-combustion Design Concepts 440
6.5.2 Biomass Preparation and Feeding 442
6.5.3 Co-combustion in Pulverised Fuel Firing. 446
6.5.4 Co-combustion in Fluidised Bed Furnaces 458
References. 461
7 Coal-Fuelled Combined Cycle Power Plants 469
7.1 Natural Gas Fuelled Combined Cycle Processes 469
7.2 Overview of Combined Processes with Coal Combustion 474
7.2.1 Introduction 474
7.2.2 Hot Gas Purity Requirements 477
7.2.3 Overview of the Hot Gas Cleaning System for Coal
Combustion Combined Cycles 480
7.2.4 Effect of Pressure on Combustion481
7.3 Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion (PFBC) 483
7.3.1 Overview 483
7.3.2 Hot Gas Cleaning After the Pressurised Fluidised Bed 490
7.3.3 Pressurised Bubbling Fluidised Bed Combustion (PBFBC). . 498
7.3.4 Pressurised Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion (PCFBC). 507
7.3.5 Second-Generation Fluidised Bed Firing Systems (Hybrid Process) 514
7.3.6 Summary 517
7.4 Pressurised Pulverised Coal Combustion (PPCC) 518
7.4.1 Overview 518
7.4.2 Molten Slag Removal 520
7.4.3 Alkali Release and Capture 523
7.4.4 State of Development 538
7.4.5 Summary and Conclusions 545
7.5 Externally Fired Gas Turbine Processes 546
7.5.1 Structure, Configurations, Efficiency 546
7.5.2 High-Temperature Heat Exchanger 551
7.5.3 State of Development 561
7.5.4 Conclusions . 568
7.6 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC). 569
7.6.1 History of Coal Gasification. 569
7.6.2 Applications of Gasification Technology. 570
7.6.3 Gasification Systems and Chemical Reactions 576
7.6.4 Classification of Coal Gasifiers 585
7.6.5 Gas Treatment 593
7.6.6 Components and Integration. 608
7.6.7 State of the Art and Perspectives. 612
References 619
8 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) 629
8.1 Potential for Carbon Capture and Storage 629
8.2 Properties and Transport of CO2 630
8.3 CO2 Storage 632
8.3.1 Industrial Use 632
8.3.2 Geological Storage 633
8.4 Overview of Capture Technologies 637
8.4.1 Technology Overview 637
8.4.2 Separation Technologies 639
8.5 Post-combustion Technologies. 642
8.5.1 Chemical Absorption 642
8.5.2 Solid Sorbents . 646
8.6 Oxy-fuel Combustion . 647
8.6.1 Oxy-fuel Steam Generator Concepts 649
8.6.2 Impact of Oxy-fuel Combustion 651
8.6.3 Oxy-fuel Configurations . 656
8.6.4 Chemical-Looping Combustion 659
8.7 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycles with Carbon Capture and Storage 661
8.8 Comparison of CCS Technologies. 663
References 665
Index 669
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1.1 Primary Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions 1
1.1.1 Development of Primary Energy Consumption in the Past 40 Years 1
1.1.2 Developments Until 2030 1
1.2 Greenhouse Effect and Impacts on the Climate 5
1.2.1 Greenhouse Effect 6
1.2.2 Impacts8
1.2.3 Scenarios of the World Climate 8
1.3 Strategies of CO2 Reduction 10
1.3.1 Substitution 10
1.3.2 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS11
1.3.3 Energy Saving 12
1.3.4 Mitigation Scenarios 12
References 13
2 Solid Fuels 15
2.1 Fossil Fuels 15
2.1.1 Origin and Classification of Coal Types 15
2.1.2 Composition and Properties of Solid Fuels 16
2.1.3 Reserves of Solid Fuels 25
2.2 Renewable Solid Fuels 29
2.2.1 Potential and Current Utilisation 29
2.2.2 Considerations of the CO2 Neutrality of Regenerative Fuels . . 40
2.2.3 Fuel Characteristics of Biomass 42
References. 54
3 Thermodynamics Fundamentals 57
3.1 Cycles 57
3.1.1 Carnot Cycle 57
3.1.2 Joule–Thomson Process 58
3.1.3 Clausius–Rankine Cycle 61
3.2 Steam Power Cycle: Energy and Exergy Considerations64
3.2.1 Steam Generator Energy and Exergy Efficiencies 67
3.2.2 Energy and Exergy Cycle Efficiencies 69
3.2.3 Energy and Exergy Efficiency of the Total Cycle 70
References 71
4 Steam Power Stations for Electricity and Heat Generation 73
4.1 Pulverised Hard Coal Fired Steam Power Plants 73
4.1.1 Energy Conversion and System Components 73
4.1.2 Design of a Condensation Power Plant 75
4.1.3 Development History of Power Plants – Correlation Between Unit Size, Availability and Efficiency 77
4.1.4 Reference Power Plant 81
4.2 Steam Generators 81
4.2.1 Flow and Heat Transfer Inside a Tube 83
4.2.2 Evaporator Configurations 87
4.2.3 Steam Generator Construction Types 93
4.2.4 Operating Regimes and Control Modes 95
4.3 Design of a Condensation Power Plant 104
4.3.1 Requirements and Boundary Conditions 104
4.3.2 Thermodynamic Design of the Power Plant Cycle 110
4.3.3 Heat Balance of the Boiler and Boiler Efficiency 114
4.3.4 Design of the Furnace 115
4.3.5 Design of the Steam Generator and of the Heating Surfaces 121
4.3.6 Design of the Flue Gas Cleaning Units and the Auxiliaries 141
4.4 Possibilities for Efficiency Increases in the Development of a Steam Power Plant
4.4.1 Increases in Thermal Efficiencies 142
4.4.2 Reduction of Losses 161
4.4.3 Reduction of the Auxiliary Power Requirements 172
4.4.4 Losses in Part-Load Operation 175
4.4.5 Losses During Start-Up and Shutdown 178
4.4.6 Efficiency of Power Plants During Operation 179
4.4.7 Fuel Drying for Brown Coal 179
4.5 Effects on Steam Generator Construction 184
4.5.1 MembraneWall 186
4.5.2 Heating Surfaces of the Final Superheater 194
4.5.3 High-Pressure Outlet Header 201
4.5.4 Furnaces Fuelled by Dried Brown Coal 204
4.6 Developments – State of the Art and Future 206
4.6.1 Hard Coal 206
4.6.2 Brown Coal 214
References 214
5 Combustion Systems for Solid Fossil Fuels 221
5.1 Combustion Fundamentals 223
5.1.1 Drying 224
5.1.2 Pyrolysis 225
5.1.3 Ignition 227
5.1.4 Combustion of Volatile Matter 230
5.1.5 Combustion of the Residual Char 230
5.2 Pollutant Formation Fundamentals 234
5.2.1 Nitrogen Oxides 234
5.2.2 Sulphur Oxides
5.2.3 Ash formation 242
5.2.4 Products of Incomplete Combustion 245
5.3 Pulverised Fuel Firing 246
5.3.1 Pulverised Fuel Firing Systems 246
5.3.2 Fuel Preparation 249
5.3.3 Burners252
5.3.4 Dry-Bottom Firing 254
5.3.5 Slag-Tap Firing 257
5.4 Fluidised Bed Firing Systems 263
5.4.1 Bubbling Fluidised Bed Furnaces 264
5.4.2 Circulating Fluidised Bed Furnaces 266
5.5 Stoker/Grate Firing Systems 271
5.5.1 Travelling Grate Stoker Firing 271
5.5.2 Self-Raking TypeMoving-Grate Stokers 273
5.5.3 Vibrating-Grate Stokers 275
5.6 Legislation and Emission Limits 275
5.7 Methods for NOx Reduction 277
5.7.1 Combustion Engineering Measures 279
5.7.2 NOx Reduction Methods, SNCR and SCR (Secondary Measures) 302
5.7.3 Dissemination and Costs. 306
5.8 SO2-Reduction Methods 307
5.8.1 Methods to Reduce the Sulphur Content of the Fuel 308
5.8.2 Methods of Fuel Gas Desulphurisation 308
5.8.3 Dissemination and Costs 315
5.9 Particulate Control Methods 315
5.9.1 Mechanical Separators (Inertia Separators) 316
5.9.2 Electrostatic Precipitators 317
5.9.3 Fabric Filters 319
5.9.4 Applications and Costs. 321
5.10 Effect of Slag, Ash and Flue Gas on Furnace Walls and Convective Heat Transfer Surfaces (Operational Problems) 322
5.10.1 Slagging 324
5.10.2 Fouling. 334
5.10.3 Erosion335
5.10.4 High-Temperature Corrosion336
5.11 Residual Matter 340
5.11.1 Forming and Quantities 340
5.11.2 Commercial Exploitation 344
References. 351
6 Power Generation from Biomass and Waste. 361
6.1 Power Production Pathways 361
6.1.1 Techniques Involving Combustion 361
6.1.2 Techniques Involving Gasification. 363
6.2 Biomass Combustion Systems 364
6.2.1 Capacities and Types 364
6.2.2 Impact of Load and Forms of Delivery of the Fuel Types 365
6.2.3 Furnace Types 366
6.2.4 Flue Gas Cleaning and Ash Disposal 373
6.2.5 Operational Problems 377
6.3 Biomass Gasification 379
6.3.1 Reactor Design Types 380
6.3.2 Gas Utilisation and Quality Requirements 389
6.3.3 Gas Cleaning 391
6.3.4 Power Production Processes 398
6.4 Thermal Utilisation of Waste (Energy from Waste) 401
6.4.1 Historical Development of Energy from Waste
Systems (EfW) 405
6.4.2 Grate-Based Combustion Systems 408
6.4.3 Pyrolysis and Gasification Systems 418
6.4.4 Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF). 421
6.4.5 Sewage Sludge 423
6.4.6 Steam Boilers 424
6.4.7 Efficiency Increases in EfWPlants 425
6.4.8 Dioxins 434
6.4.9 Flue Gas Cleaning 435
6.5 Co-combustion in Coal-Fired Power Plants. 438
6.5.1 Co-combustion Design Concepts 440
6.5.2 Biomass Preparation and Feeding 442
6.5.3 Co-combustion in Pulverised Fuel Firing. 446
6.5.4 Co-combustion in Fluidised Bed Furnaces 458
References. 461
7 Coal-Fuelled Combined Cycle Power Plants 469
7.1 Natural Gas Fuelled Combined Cycle Processes 469
7.2 Overview of Combined Processes with Coal Combustion 474
7.2.1 Introduction 474
7.2.2 Hot Gas Purity Requirements 477
7.2.3 Overview of the Hot Gas Cleaning System for Coal
Combustion Combined Cycles 480
7.2.4 Effect of Pressure on Combustion481
7.3 Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion (PFBC) 483
7.3.1 Overview 483
7.3.2 Hot Gas Cleaning After the Pressurised Fluidised Bed 490
7.3.3 Pressurised Bubbling Fluidised Bed Combustion (PBFBC). . 498
7.3.4 Pressurised Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion (PCFBC). 507
7.3.5 Second-Generation Fluidised Bed Firing Systems (Hybrid Process) 514
7.3.6 Summary 517
7.4 Pressurised Pulverised Coal Combustion (PPCC) 518
7.4.1 Overview 518
7.4.2 Molten Slag Removal 520
7.4.3 Alkali Release and Capture 523
7.4.4 State of Development 538
7.4.5 Summary and Conclusions 545
7.5 Externally Fired Gas Turbine Processes 546
7.5.1 Structure, Configurations, Efficiency 546
7.5.2 High-Temperature Heat Exchanger 551
7.5.3 State of Development 561
7.5.4 Conclusions . 568
7.6 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC). 569
7.6.1 History of Coal Gasification. 569
7.6.2 Applications of Gasification Technology. 570
7.6.3 Gasification Systems and Chemical Reactions 576
7.6.4 Classification of Coal Gasifiers 585
7.6.5 Gas Treatment 593
7.6.6 Components and Integration. 608
7.6.7 State of the Art and Perspectives. 612
References 619
8 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) 629
8.1 Potential for Carbon Capture and Storage 629
8.2 Properties and Transport of CO2 630
8.3 CO2 Storage 632
8.3.1 Industrial Use 632
8.3.2 Geological Storage 633
8.4 Overview of Capture Technologies 637
8.4.1 Technology Overview 637
8.4.2 Separation Technologies 639
8.5 Post-combustion Technologies. 642
8.5.1 Chemical Absorption 642
8.5.2 Solid Sorbents . 646
8.6 Oxy-fuel Combustion . 647
8.6.1 Oxy-fuel Steam Generator Concepts 649
8.6.2 Impact of Oxy-fuel Combustion 651
8.6.3 Oxy-fuel Configurations . 656
8.6.4 Chemical-Looping Combustion 659
8.7 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycles with Carbon Capture and Storage 661
8.8 Comparison of CCS Technologies. 663
References 665
Index 669
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