Handbook of Industrial Drying

1.Fundamental Aspects
1.1 Introduction
1.2 External Conditions (Process 1)
1.2.1 Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium and Enthalpy for a Pure Substance Vapor–Pressure Curve
1.2.1.1 The Clausius–Clapeyron Equation
1.2.1.2 Enthalpy
1.2.1.3 Heat Capacity
1.2.2 Vapor–Gas Mixtures
1.2.3 Unsaturated Vapor–Gas Mixtures: Psychrometry in Relation to Drying
1.2.3.1 Dry Bulb Temperature
1.2.3.2 Dew
1.2.3.3 Humid Volume
1.2.3.4 Enthalpy
1.2.4 Enthalpy–Humidity Charts
1.2.4.1 Adiabatic Saturation Curves
1.2.4.2 Wet Bulb Temperature
1.2.5 Types of Psychrometric Representation
1.3 Internal Conditions (Process 2)
1.3.1 Moisture Content of Solids
1.3.2 Moisture Isotherms
1.3.2.1 Sorption–Desorption Hysteresis
1.3.2.2 Temperature Variations and Enthalpy of Binding
1.3.3 Determination of Sorption Isotherms
1.4 Mechanism of Drying
1.4.1 Characteristic Drying Rate Curve
1.5 Classification and Selection of Dryers
1.5.1 Heating Methods
1.5.1.1 Convection
1.5.1.2 Conduction
1.5.1.3 Radiation
1.5.2 Temperature and Pressure of Operation
1.5.3 Conveying of Material in Dryer
1.6 Effect of Energy Costs, Safety, and Environmental Factors on Dryer Selection
1.7 Design of Dryers
1.8 Guidelines for Dryer Selection
1.9 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
Nomenclature

2.Experimental Techniques in Drying
CONTENTS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Determination of Moisture Content
2.2.1 Determination of the Moisture Content of Solid Materials
2.2.1.1 Direct Methods
2.2.1.2 Indirect Methods
2.2.2 Determination of Moisture Content of Gases
2.3 Experimental Determination of the Sorption Equilibrium Characteristics of Materials
2.3.1 Interpretation of the Equilibrium Moisture Content of Materials
2.3.2 Interpretation of the Equilibrium Vapor
2.3.3 Characteristic Functions of Sorption Equilibrium
2.3.3.1 Measuring Techniques Carried Out at a Constant Vapor Pressure
2.3.3.2 Measuring Techniques Based on Developing an Equilibrium Vapor Pressure
2.3.4 Measuring Techniques at Constant Vapor Pressure
2.3.5 Measuring Techniques Based on Developing an Equilibrium Vapor Pressure
2.4 Techniques and Equipment of the Investigation of Drying Kinetics
2.4.1 Description of the Measuring Equipment
2.4.2 Drying Experiments (Lumped Approach)
2.4.3 Techniques of Investigation with Distributed Parameters
2.4.3.1 Determination of the Thermal Conductivity and Diffusivity of Wet Materials
2.4.3.2 Determination of the Mass Diffusivity and Moisture Conductivity
Coefficient of Wet Materials
2.4.3.3 Determination of the Thermal Conductivity and Effective Diffusivity
Coefficient of the Dry Material
2.5 Drying of Fixed and Moving Beds
2.5.1 Determination of the Volumetric Heat Transfer Coefficient
2.5.2 Determination of the Heat and Mass Transfer Coefficients in Through Circulation Drying
2.6 Conclusion
Nomenclature
References

3.Basic Process Calculations and Simulations in Drying
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Basic Classes of Models and Generic Dryer
3.4 General Rules for a Dryer Model Formulation
3.4.1 Mass and Energy Balances
3.4.1.1 Mass Balances
3.4.1.2 Energy balances
3.4.2 Constitutive Equations
3.4.2.1 Characteristic Drying Curve
3.4.2.2 Kinetic Equation (e.g., Thin-Layer Equations)
3.4.3 Auxiliary Relationships
3.4.3.1 Humid Gas Properties and Psychrometric Calculations
3.4.3.2 Relations between Absolute Humidity, Relative Humidity,
Temperature, and Enthalpy of Humid Gas
3.4.3.3 Calculations Involving Dew-Point Temperature, Adiabatic-Saturation
Temperature, and Wet-Bulb Temperature
3.4.3.4 Construction of Psychrometric Charts
3.4.3.5 Wet Solid Properties
3.4.4 Property Databases
3.5 General Remarks on Solving Models
3.6 Basic Models of Dryers in Steady State
3.6.1 Input–Output Models
3.6.2 Distributed Parameter Models
3.6.2.1 Cocurrent Flow
3.6.2.2 Countercurrent Flow
3.6.2.3 Cross-Flow
3.7 Distributed Parameter Models for the Solid
3.7.1 One-Dimensional Models
3.7.1.1 Nonshrinking Solids
3.7.1.2 Shrinking Solids
3.7.2 Two- and Three-Dimensional Models
3.7.3 Simultaneous Solving DPM of Solids and Gas Phase
3.8 Models for Batch Dryers
3.8.1 Batch-Drying Oven
3.8.2 Batch Fluid Bed Drying
3.8.3 Deep Bed Drying
3.9 Models for Semicontinuous Dryers
3.10 Shortcut Methods for Dryer Calculation
3.10.1 Drying Rate from Predicted Kinetics
3.10.1.1 Free Moisture
3.10.1.2 Bound Moisture
3.10.2 Drying Rate from Experimental Kinetics
3.10.2.1 Batch Drying
3.10.2.2 Continuous Drying
3.11 Software Tools for Dryer Calculations
3.12 Conclusion
Nomenclature
References

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BEJAN A. 2003 Heat Transfer Handbook

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Heat Transfer JP HOLMAN

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Heating and Air Conditioning of Buildings

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Heat And MassTransfer Mechanical Engineering Handbook

4.1 Conduction Heat Transfer
Introduction • Fourier’s Law • Insulations • The Plane Wall at Steady State • Long, Cylindrical Systems at Steady State • The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient • Critical Thickness of Insulation • Internal Heat Generation• Fins • Transient Systems• Finite-Difference Analysis of Conduction

4.2 Convection Heat Transfer
Natural Convection • Forced Convection — External Flows •Forced Convection — Internal Flows

4.3 Radiation
Nature of Thermal Radiation • Blackbody Radiation •Radiative Exchange between Opaque Surfaces • Radiative Exchange within Participating Media

4.4 Phase-Change
Boiling and Condensation • Particle Gas Convection • Melting and Freezing

4.5 Heat Exchangers
Compact Heat Exchangers • Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers

4.6 Temperature and Heat Transfer Measurements
Temperature Measurement • Heat Flux • Sensor Environmental Errors • Evaluating the Heat Transfer Coefficient

4.7 Mass Transfer
Introduction • Concentrations, Velocities, and Fluxes • Mechanisms of Diffusion • Species Conservation Equation •Diffusion in a Stationary Medium • Diffusion in a Moving Medium • Mass Convection

4.8 Applications
Enhancement • Cooling Towers • Heat Pipes • Cooling Electronic Equipment

4.9 Non-Newtonian Fluids — Heat Transfer
Introduction • Laminar Duct Heat Transfer — Purely Viscous,Time-Independent Non-Newtonian Fluids • Turbulent Duct Flow for Purely Viscous Time-Independent Non-Newtonian Fluids • Viscoelastic Fluids • Free Convection Flows and Heat Transfer




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Design and Optimization of Thermal Systems

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Engineering Design 2
1.1.1 Design Versus Analysis 2
1.1.2 Synthesis for Design 6
1.1.3 Selection Versus Design 7
1.2 Design as Part of Engineering Enterprise 9
1.2.1 Need or Opportunity 9
1.2.2 Evaluation and Market Analysis 10
1.2.3 Feasibility and Chances of Success 12
1.2.4 Engineering Design 14
1.2.5 Research and Development 15
1.2.6 Need for Optimization 16
1.2.7 Fabrication, Testing, and Production 18
1.3 Thermal Systems 19
1.3.1 Basic Characteristics 19
1.3.2 Analysis 22
1.3.3 Types and Examples 25
1.4 Outline and Scope of the Book 40
1.5 Summary 43
References 44

Chapter 2 Basic Considerations in Design 47
2.1 Formulation of the Design Problem 47
2.1.1 Requirements and Specifications 47
2.1.2 Given Quantities 50
2.1.3 Design Variables 51
2.1.4 Constraints or Limitations 53
2.1.5 Additional Considerations 55
2.2 Conceptual Design 58
2.2.1 Innovative Conceptual Design 58
2.2.2 Selection from Available Concepts 62
2.2.3 Modifications in the Design of Existing Systems 64
2.3 Steps in the Design Process 70
2.3.1 Physical System 72
2.3.2 Modeling 75
2.3.3 Simulation 76
2.3.4 Evaluation: Acceptable Design 81
2.3.5 Optimal Design 83
2.3.6 Safety Features, Automation, and Control 86
2.3.7 Communicating the Design 90
2.3.8 Patents and Copyrights 92
2.4 Computer-Aided Design 97
2.4.1 Main Features 97
2.4.2 Computer-Aided Design of Thermal Systems 98
2.5 Material Selection 104
2.5.1 Different Materials 104
2.5.2 Material Properties and Characteristics
for Thermal Systems 108
2.5.3 Selection and Substitution of Materials 110
2.6 Summary 113
References 115
Problems 116

Chapter 3 Modeling of Thermal Systems 125
3.1 Introduction 125
3.1.1 Importance of Modeling in Design 125
3.1.2 Basic Features of Modeling 125
3.2 Types of Models 128
3.2.1 Analog Models 129
3.2.2 Mathematical Models 130
3.2.3 Physical Models 130
3.2.4 Numerical Models 131
3.2.5 Interaction Between Models 133
3.2.6 Other Classifications 133
3.3 Mathematical Modeling 134
3.3.1 General Procedure 134
3.3.2 Final Model and Validation 160
3.4 Physical Modeling and Dimensional Analysis 165
3.4.1 Dimensional Analysis 166
3.4.2 Modeling and Similitude 176
3.4.3 Overall Physical Model 180
3.5 Curve Fitting 180
3.5.1 Exact Fit 181
3.5.2 Best Fit 183
3.6 Summary 194
References 196
Problems 197

Chapter 4 Numerical Modeling and Simulation 207
4.1 Numerical Modeling 208
4.1.1 General Features 208
4.1.2 Development of a Numerical Model 210
4.1.3 Available Software 211
4.2 Solution Procedures 212
4.2.1 Linear Algebraic Systems 213
4.2.2 Nonlinear Algebraic Systems 220
4.2.3 Ordinary Differential Equations 227
4.2.4 Partial Differential Equations 238
4.3 Numerical Model for a System 247
4.3.1 Modeling of Individual Components 248
4.3.2 Merging of Different Models 251
4.3.3 Accuracy and Validation 252
4.4 System Simulation 253
4.4.1 Importance of Simulation 254
4.4.2 Different Classes 256
4.4.3 Flow of Information 259
4.5 Methods for Numerical Simulation 264
4.5.1 Steady Lumped Systems 264
4.5.2 Dynamic Simulation of Lumped Systems 272
4.5.3 Distributed Systems 278
4.5.4 Simulation of Large Systems 282
4.5.5 Numerical Simulation Versus Real System 283
4.6 Summary 284
References 285
Problems 286

Chapter 5 Acceptable Design of a Thermal System:
A Synthesis of Different Design Steps 299
5.1 Introduction 299
5.2 Initial Design 300
5.3 Design Strategies 309
5.3.1 Commonly Used Design Approach 309
5.3.2 Other Strategies 309
5.3.3 Iterative Redesign Procedure 317
5.4 Design of Systems from Different Application Areas 322
5.4.1 Manufacturing Processes 323
5.4.2 Cooling of Electronic Equipment 329
5.4.3 Environmental Systems 336
5.4.4 Heat Transfer Equipment 342
5.4.5 Fluid Flow Systems 350
5.4.6 Other Areas 361
5.4.7 Design of Components Versus Design of Systems 361
5.5 Additional Considerations for Large Practical Systems 362
5.6 Summary 373
References 374
Problems 375

Chapter 6 Economic Considerations 383
6.1 Introduction 383
6.2 Calculation of Interest 385
6.2.1 Simple Interest 385
6.2.2 Compound Interest 385
6.2.3 Continuous Compounding 387
6.2.4 Effective Interest Rate 388
6.3 Worth of Money as a Function of Time 390
6.3.1 Present Worth 390
6.3.2 Future Worth 391
6.3.3 Inflation 393
6.4 Series of Payments 396
6.4.1 Future Worth of Uniform Series of Amounts 396
6.4.2 Present Worth of Uniform Series of Amounts 397
6.4.3 Continuous Compounding in a Series of Amounts 399
6.4.4 Changing Amount in Series of Payments 400
6.4.5 Shift in Time 402
6.4.6 Different Frequencies 403
6.4.7 Changes in Schedule 403
6.5 Raising Capital 405
6.5.1 Bonds 406
6.5.2 Stocks 408
6.6 Taxes 408
6.6.1 Inclusion of Taxes 409
6.6.2 Depreciation 410
6.7 Economic Factor in Design 413
6.7.1 Cost Comparison 413
6.7.2 Rate of Return 417
6.8 Application to Thermal Systems 419
6.9 Summary 421
References 421
Problems 422

Chapter 7 Problem Formulation for Optimization 429
7.1 Introduction 429
7.1.1 Optimization in Design 429
7.1.2 Final Optimized Design 431
7.2 Basic Concepts 432
7.2.1 Objective Function 432
7.2.2 Constraints 434
7.2.3 Operating Conditions Versus Hardware 437
7.2.4 Mathematical Formulation 438
7.3 Optimization Methods 440
7.3.1 Calculus Methods 440
7.3.2 Search Methods 441
7.3.3 Linear and Dynamic Programming 442
7.3.4 Geometric Programming 444
7.3.5 Other Methods 444
7.4 Optimization of Thermal Systems 447
7.4.1 Important Considerations 447
7.4.2 Different Approaches 448
7.4.3 Different Types of Thermal Systems 449
7.4.4 Examples 451
7.4.5 Consideration of the Second Law of Thermodynamics 455
7.5 Practical Aspects in Optimal Design 457
7.5.1 Choice of Variables for Optimization 457
7.5.2 Sensitivity Analysis 459
7.5.3 Dependence on Objective Function: Trade-Offs 461
7.5.4 Multi-Objective Optimization 462
7.5.5 Part of Overall Design Strategy 464
7.5.6 Change of Concept or Model 465
7.6 Summary 466
References 467
Problems 468

Chapter 8 Lagrange Multipliers 473
8.1 Introduction to Calculus Methods 473
8.2 The Lagrange Multiplier Method 475
8.2.1 Basic Approach 475
8.2.2 Physical Interpretation 477
8.2.3 Significance of the Multipliers 485
8.3 Optimization of Unconstrained Problems 486
8.3.1 Use of Gradients for Optimization 487
8.3.2 Determination of Minimum or Maximum 487
8.3.3 Conversion of Constrained to Unconstrained Problem 489
8.4 Optimization of Constrained Problems 491
8.5 Applicability to Thermal Systems 494
8.5.1 Use of Curve Fitting 494
8.5.2 Examples 495
8.5.3 Inequality Constraints 499
8.5.4 Some Practical Considerations 500
8.5.5 Computational Approach 501
8.6 Summary 503
References 504
Problems 505

Chapter 9 Search Methods 511
9.1 Basic Considerations 511
9.1.1 Importance of Search Methods 512
9.1.2 Types of Approaches 513
9.1.3 Application to Thermal Systems 514
9.2 Single-Variable Problem 515
9.2.1 Uniform Exhaustive Search 517
9.2.2 Dichotomous Search 519
9.2.3 Fibonacci Search 521
9.2.4 Golden Section and Other Search Methods 523
9.2.5 Comparison of Different Elimination Methods 524
9.3 Unconstrained Search with Multiple Variables 527
9.3.1 Lattice Search 529
9.3.2 Univariate Search 530
9.3.3 Steepest Ascent/Descent Method 532
9.4 Multivariable Constrained Optimization 537
9.4.1 Penalty Function Method 537
9.4.2 Search Along a Constraint 542
9.5 Examples of Thermal Systems 547
9.6 Summary 551
References 553
Problems 554

Chapter 10 Geometric, Linear, and Dynamic Programming and Other Methods for Optimization 559
10.1 Geometric Programming 559
10.1.1 Applicability 560
10.1.2 Unconstrained Optimization 561
10.1.3 Mathematical Proof 570
10.1.4 Constrained Optimization 573
10.1.5 Nonzero Degree of Difficulty 578
10.2 Linear Programming 579
10.3 Dynamic Programming 588
10.4 Other Methods 590
10.5 Summary 591
References 592
Problems 593

Chapter 11 Knowledge-Based Design and Additional Considerations 599
11.1 Knowledge-Based Systems 599
11.1.1 Introduction 600
11.1.2 Basic Components 602
11.1.3 Expert Knowledge 607
11.1.4 Design Methodology 609
11.1.5 Application to Thermal Systems 610
11.2 Additional Constraints 621
11.3 Professional Ethics 623
11.4 Sources of Information 625
11.5 An Overview of Design of Thermal Systems 628
11.6 Summary 631
References 632
Problems 633

Design Projects 635
Appendix A Computer Programs 639
Appendix B Material Properties 659
Appendix C Interest Tables 679
Appendix D Heat Transfer Correlations 687
Index 697

Total 753 pages 5.2 mb

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